Genetta genetta (Linnaeus, 1758)

Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2009, Viverridae, Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 1 Carnivores, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 174-232 : 184-185

14.

Common Genet

Genetta genetta

French: Genette commune / German: Kleinfleckgenette / Spanish: Gineta comun

Other common names: Common Small-spotted Genet

Taxonomy. Viverra genetta Linnaeus, 1758 ,

El Pardo, near Madrid, Spain.

Some authors have included the Feline Genet (G. felina) as a subspecies of G. genetta , G. felina is treated here as a separate species. High intra-specific variability within the Common Genet makes clear distinctions between populations difficult to assess and over thirty subspecies have been described. A taxonomic revision is needed, but five subspecies are recognized here.

Subspecies and Distribution.

G. g. genetta Linnaeus, 1758 — SW Europe and N Africa from Morocco to Libya.

G. g. dongolana Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833 — E, NE & C Africa.

G. g. grantii Thomas, 1902 — SW Arabian Peninsula in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, and Oman.

G. g. pulchra Matschie, 1902 — Angola, Namibia, Botswana, W Zambia, and NE South Africa.

G. g. senegalensis Fischer, 1829 — W Africa.

Descriptive notes. Head-body 46.5-52 cm (males), 46-5— 49 cm (females), tail 42-51. 6 cm (males), 40-51. 6 cm (females), hindfoot 8.9-7 cm (males), 8:2.9-1 cm (females), ear 4-6 cm (males), 4-:2.6-5 cm (females); weight 1:6.2-6 kg (males), 1.4-2. 3 kg (females). A medium-sized genet, with a slender body and a long tail. The coat color ranges from whitish-gray to pale yellow-rufous; the underparts are whitish, pale yellowish-gray or gray. The pelage has relatively long guard hairs. In the arid parts ofits range, the pelage is shorter and the coat color and spots are lighter. The head is small, with a pointed muzzle and small, upstanding round ears. The facial mask is relatively well marked, with a dark line on the muzzle and contrasting white suband supraocular white spots. The nuchal stripes are well defined. There is a thin, dark mid-dorsal line with long erectile hairs (up to 7-5 cm), which begins after the shoulder and runs to the base of the tail. The dark dorsal spots merge into longitudinal lines. The tail is relatively long, with eight to ten pale rings alternating with dark rings; the tip ofthetail is whitish. The pale rings and the dark rings are the same width, although the margins of the rings are often not clearly distinguishable due to the overlapping long guard hairs of the preceding ring. The foreand hindlimbs are spotted; the upper parts of the feet are lightly spotted. The underparts of the hindlimb and feet are dark. There are five digits on each foot; the first digits are slightly set back and do not mark in the print. The central depression of the forefeet is hairy. The forefeet have reduced metacarpal pads and the hindfeet bear two very narrow, elongated metatarsal pads. The claws are sharp, curved, and retractile. The perineal gland opens into a longitudinal Y-shaped slit. There are two pairs of teats. The baculum in the male is well-developed. The skull is medium-size and ovoid, with a strong sagittal crest. The rostrum is narrow and elongated. The inter-orbital constriction is weakly marked and the zygomatic arches are lightly built. The post-orbital processes of the frontal and jugal bones are almost totally absent. The auditory bullae are elongated, with the anterior chambers only slightly smaller than the posterior chambers. The premaxillary-frontal contact is absent and the posterior extension of the frontal bones is moderate, overlapping about 50% of the dorsal region of the inter-orbital constriction. The ratio between the inter-orbital constriction and frontal width is 1 + 0-12. Dental formula: 1 3/3, C 1/1, P 4/4, M 2/2 = 40. The upper canines are elongated, curved and sharp, and the second upper molar and the second lower molars are small. The presence and development of the inner cusp of the third upper premolar is variable. The maxillary-palatine suture is at the same level as the main cusp of P°.

Habitat. Occurs in a wide range of habitats. Often associated with trees and bushes, but can also be found in rocky, treeless areas. Seems to avoid dense rainforest and very arid zones, but can be found in close proximity to human dwellings. In Morocco, the Common Genet is found in forests and bushy areas (mainly in the mountains), rocky ravines (preferably vegetated and near water), and in the Sahara fringe (where it is common in oases and other productive areas). In Algeria, it is found in riparian forests at sea level and up to 2000 m in the Djurjura Mountains, where it occupies all types of habitats (most abundant in old forests of Quercus ilex and Cedrus atlantica). In West Africa, it occurs in wooded savannahs. In the Ethiopian Highlands, a radio-collared female was found in woodland (84% of the time), bush (9%), farmland (5%), and grassland (2%). In Tanzania, Common Genets were camera-trapped in lowland forest. In the Serengeti, they are strongly associated with trees and thickets and are frequently seen on escarpments, rocky outcrops, and other hills. In Botswana, they are found in all the major vegetation associations (including riverine forests and open, dry scrub savannahs): 47 genets were captured in Acacia woodland or scrub, 16 in mopane (Colophospermum mopane) woodland or scrub, twelve in Terminalia-Bauhinia scrub, nine in unspecified riverine forests, nine in open grassland (with scattered bushes and trees), and lower numbers in other habitats. The Common Genet does not occur in open habitats unless there is some adjacent scrub cover or isolated patches of trees with underbrush, which suggests that scrub cover or woodland is an essential habitat requirement. In some places, the Common Genet can penetrate into deserts along seasonal watercourses. In Arabia, it is said to inhabit dry ravines in hills and mountains. In Europe, itis especially abundant in oak forests (Quercus spp.) and is also common in olive groves (Olea europaea), riparian copses, ash groves (Fraxinus spp.), pine forests, rocky areas, and scrublands, but is rare or absent in open areas, marshes, and agricultural fields. Common Genets prefer to live at low altitudes, especially in northern areas, which suggests that cold temperatures may restrict its distribution: in central Spain, genets were scarce on plateaux and the upper parts of mountains (not found above 1400 m), but were widely distributed in lower mountain areas. They were present in areas with abundant scrub cover and high mean temperatures. In northern Spain, three radio-collared males showed a strong preference for holm oak forest; pine plantations were avoided, eucalyptus plantations were used according to availability, and other habitats such as meadows, gardens, and crops near houses, were used opportunistically by two of the three genets.

Food and Feeding. Feeds mainly on small mammals, but also eats other small vertebrates (including birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish), invertebrates (mainly insects), eggs, fruits, and sometimes grass. Field studies have shown seasonal and geographical variations in the diet (frequency of occurrence of food items). In south-west France (woodlands with rocky areas): 73% small mammals, including rodents (mainly Apodemus sylvaticus, Clethrionomys glareolus, Arvicola sapidus, Pitymys and Microtus spp.), insectivores ( Sorex spp. , Talpa europaea, Crocidura russula, and Neomys fodiens), and occasionally a few mustelids Least Weasel and Ermine. Other prey items included: 10% birds (mainly passerines), 9% insects (Coleoptera and Orthoptera), 1% amphibians, 0-7% reptiles, 0-6% European Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), 0-2% fish, and a few eggs. Plant remains included 13% grass, and 10% fruits and berries. Some seasonal variations were observed. The percentage of small mammals in the diet remained stable, but more birds were eaten during winter and fewer during spring, and the consumption offruits followed the fruiting season, being consumed mainly in the summer and autumn. In north-west France (marshy forest): 71% small mammals, 18% birds, 8% arthropods, and 2% rabbits. In north-west France (broad-leaved forest with pastures): 59% small mammals, 26% birds, 7% arthropods, 3% rabbits, 0-7% reptiles, and 0-4% amphibians. In north-west Spain (broad-leaved forest and riparian forest): 67% small mammals, 18% arthropods, 8% birds, 4% amphibians, and 2% reptiles. In north-east Spain (riparian forest): 34% arthropods, 30% small mammals, 10% reptiles, 7% birds, 4% rabbits, and 1% amphibians. In central Spain (holm oak and broad-leaved forests): 36% arthropods, 30% birds, 28% small mammals, 7% reptiles, 4% amphibians, and 0-2% rabbits. In southern Spain (Mediterranean shrubs): 65% small mammals, 16% birds, 8% arthropods, 7% amphibians, 4% rabbits, and 3% reptiles. In central Portugal: 58% mammals (42% rodents, 8% insectivores, 8% rabbits), 15% arthropods, 11% birds, 2% reptiles, 1% gastropods, 0-7% eggs, 9% fruits and 2% plants. Small mammals were consumed more in the autumn and winter, birds and fruits in the spring and summer. In north-west Portugal, rodents were the main prey (particularly Apodemus sylvaticus and Microtus agrestis), followed by insectivores and birds (particularly in the spring). Reptiles were consumed mostly in the spring and fruits in the summer. On Mallorca (Mediterranean forest): 47% small mammals, 25% arthropods, 23% reptiles, 4% rabbits, 3% birds, and 1% amphibians. Another study on Mallorca (Mediterranean forest): 91% mammals, 39% plants, 20% birds, 18% arthropods, and 8% reptiles. On Ibiza (Mediterranean shrubs): 45% small mammals, 19% reptiles, 18% arthropods, 10% amphibians, 6% birds, and 0-7% rabbits. Another study on Ibiza (Mediterranean shrubs): 92% mammals, 42% plants, 32% birds, 18% reptiles, and 12% arthropods. On Cabrera Island (Mediterranean shrubs): 46% arthropods, 40% reptiles, 16% small mammals, 11% amphibians, 5% birds, and 2% rabbits. Another study on Cabrera Island (Mediterranean shrubs): 70% mammals, 48% birds, 31% plants, 26% reptiles, and 21% arthropods. In Morocco (oak forest): 72% small mammals, 19% arthropods, 4% birds, 3% reptiles, 1% amphibians, and 2% fruits. In north-east Algeria (riparian forest): 64% arthropods, 23% small mammals, 7% amphibians, 3% reptiles, 1% birds, 0-6% fish, and 2% fruit. In north-east Algeria (Mediterranean montane forest), 62% arthropods, 20% small mammals, 12% birds, 3% reptiles, and 1% amphibians. In Zimbabwe: 66% insects (Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Isoptera), 51% rodents ( Mastomys spp. , Mus spp. , Tatera spp. , Rattus rattus, Saccostomus campestris, and Steatomys pratensis), 31% arachnids, 10% birds, 10% reptiles, 3% shrews ( Soricidae ), 3% amphibians, and 3% Myiaodia. In Botswana: 73% insects (Orthoptera, Isoptera, Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera), 53% arachnids, 50% rodents ( Mastomys spp. , Mus spp. , Tatera spp. , Rattus rattus, Saccostomus campestris, Steatomys pratensis, Gerbillurus paeba, Thallomys paedulcus, Otomys angoniensis, and Aethomys spp. ), 18% reptiles, 6% birds, 5% Myriapodia, 1% shrews ( Soricidae ), 1% Chiroptera, 1% dormice ( Muscardinidae ), and 5% fruits. Foraging takes place at night.

Activity patterns. Primarily nocturnal. In Senegal, 25 nocturnal observations were recorded between 20:00-22:30 h. In Botswana, the earliest sightings were just after dark at 19:00 h, with activity recorded until 02:00 h. In Ethiopia, a radio-tracking study showed that Common Genets were nocturnal; four genets were also seen at night. In Spain, a radio-collared male was exclusively nocturnal; a young female was active 65% during the night, but was also active 19% of the time during the day. Both genets showed greater activity from sunset to midnight and the male had a secondary peak of activityjust before sunrise. In south-east Spain, radio-collared genets were primarily nocturnal, but were active 29% of the time during the day. Restsites are in trees (hollow trunks and branches), hollow logs, dense thickets and bushes, rocky areas, and holes in the ground. In Ethiopia, a female genet used several diurnal resting sites, most of them in trees. In Spain, a young female and an adult male both used areas with high ground cover for resting. The diurnal resting sites were located in dense thickets (86% in the young female, 36% in the male) and in treetops (14% and 64%, respectively). When both were available, they usually selected thickets. In treetops, they generally used old bird nests, pine-needle tufts, and dry pine branches, 4-15 m above the ground. Restsites changed each day. The mean distance between consecutive daybeds was 277 m for the female and 2175 m for the male.

Movements, Home range and Social organization. Solitary, although pairs have occasionally been observed. Common Genets are proficient climbers, but most of their activity appears to be on the ground. In Tanzania, one marked individual was observed using an area of 0-25 km®. In Ethiopia, a radio-collared juvenile female had a home range of 0-34 km?and a lactating female had a range of 0-62 km?*; both ranges closely overlapped with each other. In southern Ethiopia, a female had a home range of 1-7 km?, with a core area of 0-2 km* (centered on Hagenia and Juniperus woodlands). In southwestern Spain, a young female had a home range of 1-4 km? she used 0-2 km?® in the first month, 0-7 km? the second, and 1-2 km®in the third, suggesting that she was increasing her home range as she got older. The radio-collared male in this study appeared to be a dispersing individual as he covered an area of 50 km? The mean daily distance travelled in 24 hours was 2978 m for the female and 8050 m for the male. Two types of movement were detected: a zig-zag run (associated with searching for food and hunting) and a more or less straight-line run (travelling). Further studies in southwestern Spain, revealed a mean home range size of 7-8 km? for eight individuals (range 0-73-14-71 km?); there was a large inter-sexual and a low intra-sexual overlap of ranges. The mean distance travelled was 2: 78 km /day; the mean distance between consecutive resting sites was 0-73 km. The density of adults was estimated to be 0-33 individuals/km?®. In northern Spain, three males had home ranges of 2-12, 3-39, and 10-16 km®. In north-east Spain, the mean annual home range size was 1-13 km” in males and 0-72 km? in females; resting home range sizes were nine times lower than overall home range sizes. Home range sizes changed with the seasons and were smallestin the summer (0-41 km? in males and 0-29 km? in females) and largest in the spring (0-79 km? in males and 0-56 km?” in females). Core areas represented 27% ofthe total home range in males and 19% in females. Intra-sexual home range overlap was lower than inter-sexual overlap; there was no overlap of core areas. The minimum density was 0-98 individuals/km*. Common Genets deposit their feces in latrines, which are either elevated (on rocks and in trees) or on the ground. More than one individual may use the same latrine and a large number of feces can be found in them. They are more frequently located on the edges of home ranges. In Spain, the number of feces in 27 latrines ranged from one to 27, with seven containing only one scat. More than one individual appeared to use these latrines. Feces were found in trees (44% on main trunks, 22% on secondary trunks, 15% on raptor nests, and 7% on branches), on thickets or hedges (7%), and on the ground (4%). Feces on trees were situated on average 4-2 m high. Each genet tended to deposit feces all over the surface of the latrine (never over fresh feces, but over old ones). Scattered feces were also found on the ground. Within the study area, Common Genets inhabited mesic scrubland patches and preferentially deposited their feces on the edges of these patches. The number of feces in latrines was highest in February-March and November-December, and lowest in April-August. Among 15 latrines, only five were continuously used for at least four months and only one was always used. All were close to resting sites and when these were deserted the latrines were no longer used. In central Spain, fecalsites were in areas with high rock and shrub cover, habitats that provided good feeding places and refuges. In south-west Portugal, the selection of latrine and scent marking sites was driven by the availability of shelter and food: latrines were more often in habitat with high understory cover. Latrines were usually located on conspicuous structures: old-growth trees were the dominant latrine sites. In south-west France, latrines were often located on rocks and were found to contain ten to 65 feces, but those with higher numbers were rare and isolated feces were also found. Common Genets also use the secretion from their perineal gland and urine as a means of communication. While scent marking, they adopt a handstand posture or a flexion of the hindlegs. In captivity, scent marking behavior increased in the male and decreased in the female during the breeding season; it increased again in the female after mating, but decreased again before parturition. Captive males and females sniffed the scent marks of unknown genets more than those of known genets (of the opposite sex). They also spent more time sniffing marks of other genets than their own marks. The Common Genet also scent-marks by flank rubbing, which consists of rubbing the cheek, neck and dorsal parts of the flank against unscented vertical surfaces; these body regions have a higher density of sebaceous glands. Males are able to recognize the physiological state offemales from sniffing scent marks left by flank rubbing. Flank rubbing increases during agonistic encounters and is generally associated with visual threat signals, such as piloerection of the dorsal crest and the tail. Intimidating behavior in Common Genets is very cat-like, with an arched-back stance, erection of the dorsal crest and tail hairs, hissing, and an open mouth showing the teeth.

Breeding. There may be two breeding seasons in Kenya, from March to May and September to December, which correspond to the wet seasons. One adult female was found lactating in southwestern Ethiopia at the end of November and a pregnant female was recorded in Zambia in February. Most pregnant females were detected in Botswana from October to February. Elsewhere in southern Africa, pregnant females have been taken in September, October, and January. In Europe and North Africa, mating mainly occurs in the spring and autumn; birth peaks are in April to June and September to November. Breeding behavior has been mainly observed in captivity. Several days before mating, the male and female increase their uro-genital marking activity; the male emits contact calls, and sniffs the ano-genital region and flanks of the female. Copulations occur at night, last two or three minutes, and are repeated up to five times. Gestation is 70 to 77 days. Natal den sites are in hollow trees, burrows, and rocky crevices. Litter size is one to four; the most common number is two. Newborns are covered with hair and have closed ears and eyes. Weight at birth is 60 to 85 g; the young are 300 g at one month, 450 g at two months, 900 g at four months, and 1500 g at eight months. They nurse during the first four months and start eating solid food when they are about 45 days old. They start to pursue prey at twelve weeks and have acquired their predator skills by the 18" week. They are sexually mature at around 19-24 months.

Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. Possibly introduced to Spain during historical times and has spread to France and Portugal. Individuals have also been recorded in Belgium, Germany, Holland, Italy, and Switzerland.The populations on Ibiza Island, sometimes considered a distinct subspecies (G. g. isabelae), were classified as Vulnerable on the The IUCN Red List. Listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention and on the EU Habitats and Species Directive, Annex V. The Common Genetis not considered threatened because of its wide distribution and its generalist habitat and food preferences. However, it is eaten by people in some African localities and the body parts are used for medicinal purposes. In southern Africa, they have been reported for sale in city markets.

Bibliography. Admasu et al. (2004b), Alcover (1982), Aymerich (1982a), Camps-Munuera & Llober (2004), Carvalho & Gomes (2004), Clevenger (1995, 1996), Crawford-Cabral (1981), Cugnasse & Riols (1984), Delibes & Gaubert (In press), Delibes et al. (1989), Dobson (1998), Duckworth (1995), Espirito-Santo et al. (2007), Gangloff & Ropartz (1972), Gaubert, Fernandes et al. (2004), Gaubert, Taylor, Fernandes et al. (2005), Gaubert, Taylor & Veron (2005), Hamdine et al. (1993), lkeda et al. (1983), Lariviere & Calzada (2001), Livet & Roeder (1987), Lodé et al. (1991), Mitchell-Jones et al. (1999), Palomares (1993a), Palomares & Delibes (1988, 1994, 2000), Roeder (1978, 1980), Roeder & Thierry (1994), Roeder et al. (1989), Rosalino & Santos-Reis (2002), Sillero-Zubiri & Marino (1997), Skinner & Chimimba (2005), Taylor (1969, 1970b), Virgos & Casanovas (1997), Virgos, Casanovas & Blazquez (1996), Virgos, Llorente & Cortes (1999), Virgos, Romero & Mangas (2001), Waser (1980), Wozencraft (2005), Zuberogoitia & Zabala (2004), Zuberogoitia et al. (2002).

Figures

7. Leighton’s Oyan (Poiana leightoni), 8. Central African Oyan (Poiana richardsonii), 9. Abyssinian Genet (Genetta abyssinica), 10. Angolan Genet (Genetta angolensis), 11. Bourlon’s Genet (Genetta bourloni), 12. Crested Genet (Genetta cristata), 13. Feline Genet (Genetta felina), 14. Common Genet (Genetta genetta)

Subspecies and Distribution. G. g. genetta Linnaeus, 1758 — SW Europe and N Africa from Morocco to Libya . G. g. dongolana Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833 — E, NE & C Africa. G. g. grantii Thomas, 1902 — SW Arabian Peninsula in Saudi Arabia and Yemen , and Oman . G. g. pulchra Matschie, 1902 — Angola , Namibia , Botswana , W Zambia , and NE South Africa . G. g. senegalensis Fischer, 1829 — W Africa.