Capra nubiana, F. Cuvier, 1825
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publication ID |
https://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.6512484 |
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DOI |
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6636940 |
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persistent identifier |
https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03F50713-9921-FF9B-064E-FE8BFA6BF6FC |
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treatment provided by |
Conny |
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scientific name |
Capra nubiana |
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Nubian Ibex
French: Bouquetin de Nubie / German: Nubien-Steinbock / Spanish: ibice de Nubia
Other common names: Middle Eastern Ibex
Taxonomy. Capra nubiana F. Cuvier, 1825 View in CoL ,
Egypt.
Formerly classified as a subspecies of C. ibex . Based on phylogenetic data, it warrants classification as a separate species. Monotypic:.
Distribution: EgyptE of Nile River, NE Sudan, Israel, W Jordan, Saudi Arabia, SW Oman, SE Yemen; occurrence in Eritrea is not confirmed. View Figure
Descriptive notes. Head—body 119-160 cm (males) and 90-120 cm (females), tail 9-17 cm (males) and 6-16 cm (females), shoulder height ¢.75-110 cm (males) and ¢.65-100 cm (females), ear 13-20 cm (males) and 13-18 cm (females); weight 50-85 kg (males) and 25-40 kg (females). Horn length 88-127 cm (males), rarely longer than 35 cm (females), basal horn circumference 15-24 cm (males). Ear is longer than tail. Males weigh 50% more than females. Mature male horns diverge slightly and grow upward, scimitarshaped, with the tips pointing forward. The relatively flat frontal surface of male horns has transverse knobs. Older males develop dark beards 7-10 cm long. General body color is pale brown to reddishsandy. Chin, belly, and usually upper inside of legs and scrotum are white. In males in winter pelage, lower neck, chest, and upper front and sides of front legs can be black. There is a dark, mid-dorsal stripe from the neck to the tail and a well-defined or faint flank stripe. A silver saddle can develop in older males. In both sexes the rump patch is small, narrow, and white; tail is black and tufted (hairs 3 cm long); and dark front of legs and hooves sharply contrasts with white knees and pasterns. Females lack dorsal and flank stripes. Male longevity rarely exceeds eleven years in the wild.
Habitat. Nubian Ibexes occur from below sea level in the Dead Sea area to 2600 m in mountainous terrain interspersed with rocky wadi beds (riparian areas), cliffs, escarpments, boulderstrewn scree, and plateaus in proximity to precipitous escape terrain. Annual precipitation can be less than 70 mm and daytime temperature can exceed 40°C. Springs, natural water catchments in canyon pools and riparian areas are important watering sites and the associated vegetation is an important food source. Wild large mammalian carnivores, principally Gray Wolves (Canis lupus) and Leopards (Panthera pardus), are not significant predators because they occur in low numbers or have been extirpated. Harassment and predation by domestic and feral dogs, especially livestock guard dogs, can have a major negative impact on ibexes, especially females and young. Females with young are especially at risk of predation. Females not accompanied by kids select richer feeding areas, spend more time feeding, forage farther from precipitous escape terrain, and associate in smaller groups than females accompanied by young. Females with kids probably prioritize minimizing risk predation to offspring by adopting a conservative behavior strategy, especially by remaining in proximity to rough, steep, rocky escape terrain.
Food and Feeding. In Israel, Nubian Ibexes fed on 40 plant species. Plant species consumed varied seasonally, with an increase in browse during the dry season. Nubian Ibexes frequently feed on 28 plants: 14 shrubs, nine trees, four perennial grasses, and one forb species. The five principal plant foods are four shrubs and one perennial grass. During the rainy season, diet changed from browse to perennials, which allowed the shrub and tree species to recover from heavy grazing during the dry period. During a winter of higher than average rainfall, Nubian Ibexes fed exclusively on annual vegetation, avoiding shrubs. In other areas, acacia twigs, and leaves and pods on plants and on the ground, are principal food sources. Females have rapid food passage rates, are more selective of forage intake, and more thoroughly masticate forage than males, probably to promote digestion by reducing forage particle size. Males masticate less thoroughly, feed more on fibrous browse, and promote digestion by prolonging exposure of food particles to rumen digestion.
Breeding. Mating occurs in late September and October. In Oman, there appeared to be two mating periods, one in autumn and a second in spring. After a gestation period of 165-175 days, females give birth in late March and April in isolation in rough, steep terrain that provides protection from predation. The neonate, usually a singleton, remains secluded for several days and is fed periodically by the mother until it is mature enough to follow her andjoin a female herd. About 20-30% of females have twins, and females have been observed with triplets. Males tend individual females and do not form harems. Mature, older males do most of the mating and by aggressive behaviors, prevent younger, subdominant males from participating in the rut. Younger males tend to avoid older males and interact with males of similar age and socialstatus. Kid— female ratio during the mating season in Israel was 22 kids:100 females in 1979 and 72 kids: 100 females in 1980. The higher kid survival in 1980 was attributed to higher rainfall and subsequent higher forage availability that year. In northern Arabia, during a two-year period, the ratio was 89-100 kids at age six months:100 females. In Israel, annual mortality of young during the first 120 days after birth averaged 37%. Neonatal survival can be highly variable, depending principally on seasonal forage availability. In southern Israel, as many as 47 kids became accidentally entrapped in successive years in a concavity in a steep canyon, because they were unable to scale the precipitous walls until the age of up to 13 days for single kids and up to 20 days for twins. Their mothers returned periodically to nurse trapped young.
Activity patterns. Daily activity begins at dawn. In hot weather, Nubian Ibexes move to north-facing slopes by 08:00 h, where they remain in the shade during the hottest hours of the day. They become active again at about 17:00 h. During cold weather, they are active most of the day. In southern Sinai, where lower-elevation areas are occupied by livestock and herders in winter, the ibexes remain at elevations above 2500 m, although daytime temperatures are cold and stressful; they graze in sunlight to absorb solar heat. Females with kids adopt spatial and temporal activity patterns that minimize predation.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. Nubian Ibexes have established daily movement routes, moving from nocturnal sleeping sites to activity areas, which in most areas are in wadi beds. During long movements, they avoid lower elevations and instead use higher-elevation trails. Seasonal movements from lower areas in winter to higher areas in spring can occur during the rainy season. Daily movements are about 4-6 km, but vary considerably depending on forage availability and proximity to cover. During the mating season, adult males can move 5-10 km in one day from one mixed herd to another. Females are less prone to move long distances. Home ranges can be 0-5 km? or smaller, but some female groups can range over an area of 15 km?®. Nubian Ibex social groups consist of mature, mating-age males (greater than or equal to six years of age), female herds that include kids and young males (less than or equal to three years of age); temporary associations of immature males 4-6 years of age; female herds that include kids and young males up to three years of age; and mixed groups composed of adult females and males and younger males and females including young. Adult females have a linear dominance hierarchy. During the non-mating period, females and mature males are in separate herds. Young males attain the body weight of adult females by age three and separate from female herds by age four. Population densities in a protected area with a population of about 200 ibexes in northern Arabia were 0:26-2:67 ind/km?®. The highest densities were in areas more distant from human disturbance. The population structure was 32% females, 40% kids, and 28% males. Mixed groups consisted of up to 36 animals and those of female-young groups were 2-8, with a minimum of a female and her offspring. The male age classes broke down as follows: 38% were 1-3 years old, 27-5% were 4-5 years old, 20% were 6-8 years old, and 15% were nine years or older. Unlike other areas, where mature males and females segregate during the non-mating period, males tended to remain with females except during parturition, probably due to the limited area of primary ibex habitat in the reserve.
Status and Conservation. Classified as Vulnerable on The IUCN Red List. The Nubian Ibex was extinct in Syria and Lebanon and greatly decreased throughoutits range and extirpated over wide areas due to illegal hunting, competition with increasing livestock numbers, habitat deterioration, and habitat fragmentation due to human settlements, agricultural development, roads, vehicular traffic, and the associated human disturbance. Establishment of protected areas and travel corridors, with strict enforcement of game laws and limited numbers or complete absence of livestock, is urgent. Protected areas should also be established in areas where ibexes have been extirpated, and populations should be reestablished with wild ibexes from adjacent areas. Monitoring to determine population status, which is conducted in few areas, should be a priority. International management programs between countries that share ibex populations should be initiated. Strictly managed sport-hunting enterprises should be considered; these could provide economic incentives to local communities to maintain and establish wild populations.
Bibliography. Abebe (2002), Alkon (1997), Amer (1997), Amr et al. (2004), Anthony (1927), Attum (2007), Attum et al. (2009), Baharav & Meiboom (1981, (1982), Campbell (1997), Cotullo et al. (1996), Daly et al. (1997), Gasperetti (1994), Greenberg-Cohen et al. (1994), Gross, Alkon & Demment (1995, 1996), Gross, Demment et al. (1995), Habibi (1994), Habibi & Tatwany (1997), Hakham & Ritte (1993), Harrison (1968a, 1968b), Harrison & Bates (1991), Hatough-Bouran & Disi (1991), Hays & Bandak (1997), Hillman & Johannes (1997), Kazanskaya et al. (2007), Kohlmann etal. (1996), Masseti (2004), Massolo et al. (2008), Mendelssohn & Tom-Tov (1999), Muller et al. (1995), Osborn & Helmy (1980), Qumsiyeh (1996), Serhal (1997a, 1997b), Shackleton (1997a, 1997b), Shkedy & Saltz (2000), Valdez (1985), Wakefield & Attum (2006), Wakefield et al. (2008), Yeruham et al. (1999).
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