Capra ibex, Linnaeus, 1758
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publication ID |
https://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.6512484 |
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DOI |
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6636946 |
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persistent identifier |
https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03F50713-9920-FF9C-06C5-F6FBF620FB9F |
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Conny |
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scientific name |
Capra ibex |
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Alpine Ibex
French: Bouguetin des Alpes / German: Alpen-Steinbock / Spanish: ibice de los Alpes
Other common names: European Ibex
Taxonomy. Capra ibex Linnaeus, 1758 View in CoL ,
Switzerland.
Formerly considered by some as a polytypic subspecies including three subspecies:
Alpine Ibex ( C. i. ibex ), Siberian Ibex ( C. i. sibirica ), and Nubian Ibex (C. i. nubiana ). The mtDNA and Y-chromosome data indicate that C. ibex and C. pyrenaica are monophyletic and evolved from an ancestral immigration of Capra into Europe, where they were subsequently geographically isolated and evolved into separate species. Monotypic.
Distribution. Switzerland, S Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, N Italy, and SE France. Introduced into NW Slovenia and Bulgaria. View Figure
Descriptive notes. Head—body 115-135 cm (males) and 55-100 cm (females), tail 21-29 cm (males) and 15-23 cm (females), shoulder height 65-95 cm; weight 70-120 kg (males) and 40-50 kg (females). Horn length 75-102 cm (males), up to 35 cm (females), basal horn girth 20-25 cm (males) and 12-16 cm (females). In winter, older males are dark chestnut brown with white belly; sides of body, lower chest, and legs are dark; tail is black and bushy. Calluses develop on the carpal joint of front legs. White, narrow rump patch is restricted to area about the length and width of the tail. Females are uniformly brown but with a black tail and dark stripe along lower portion of body. In summer, males and females are yellowish-brown but males have paler neck, forehead, and flanks. Male horns grow upward and diverge in a scimitar shape. Horn growth is greatest during the second year, with significant individual heterogeneity in horn growth. Individuals with the longest horn growth as young adults also have the longest horns later in life; longer horn length in adult males is indicative of genetic quality. Growing long horns probably does not negatively affect longevity. Males reach maximum bodysize at 8-5-10-5 years and females at 4:5-5-5 years. Females can weigh 50% less than males. Males may lose 20% of body weight in winter. Males live up to 22 years in captivity; but in the wild, they live up to 16 years; females may live 19 years. Diploid chromosome numberis 60.
Habitat. The Alpine Ibex principally occurs at elevations of 1600-3200 m in alpine and subalpine habitats but can use open forests in rocky terrain associated with ledges, cliffs, and precipitous valleys. Optimal precipitation is 100-1000 mm/year. Females tend to live above the tree line year-round, in three habitat types: steep rocky slopes, alpine meadows, and stone ravines. In winter, both sexes use precipitous 30-45° slopes with minimal snow cover. Overhanging ledges and caves provide thermal cover. Alpine Ibexes usually avoid extensive wooded areas, especially during deep snow, but adult males in high-density populations can use coniferous and broadleaf forests all winter. Younger males stay closer to rocky slopes than males aged eleven years or older. During the rut, males select for rocky terrain and avoid tall shrub habitats. Survival of females and males 2-8 years old exceeds 95% under high-quality forage conditions. Greatest mortality factors are old age, starvation, disease and avalanches. Population density and snow depth and their interaction can negatively affect population size. Predation is negligible because of absence of large predators. Infectious keratoconjunctivitis, an eye disease resulting in blindness, can result in 30% mortality, but epizootic diseases do not usually result in die-offs.
Food and Feeding. Annual diets consist of about 60% graminoids, 38% forbs, and 2% browse. Consumption of browse increases in winter and spring.
Breeding. Mating occurs in December—January. In the wild, males and females can reach sexual maturity by 1-5 years, but a female's first pregnancy can be delayed until 3—4 years of age or later in high-density and poorly nourished populations. Parturition occurs in June after a gestation period of 165-175 days. Twins are rare, but in captivity, 30% of older females can twin. Neonates weigh 2.3-5 kg. Prior to parturition, pregnant females leave ewe herds and give birth in isolation in steep, rugged terrain where neonates are safer from predators and human disturbance. After the neonate is strong enough to follow, females join herds of females with kids. In a high-quality, recently established population, 43% of females gave birth at two years of age and 87% of females three years old or older gave birth in consecutive years. Alpine Ibexes have a serial polygynous mating system. Males can mate with more than one female during a mating season but only guard and court one female at a time. Dominant males do most of the courting and mating and attempt to prevent other bucks from mating with the guarded female. In one study, 83% of males 9-12 years old did most of the mating. Younger males achieve temporary access to guarded females by causing them to run and separate from the dominant courting male.
Activity patterns. In the Gran Paradiso National Park in northern Italy, in a high-elevation habitat, male foraging activity decreases at midday and evening as temperature and solar radiation increase. Grazing occurs primarily in the morning and evening. On average, males spend 51% oftheir daily activity budget grazing, 38% resting, 4-8% standing, 2-4% moving, and 3-8% in other activities. Ibexes move to higher elevations and nearly stop feeding during hot and sunny days, and remain at lower elevations and feed at all hours during cooler and cloudy days. During evenings, males grazed for about 70% of the time in earlyJune, 35% in mid-July, and 85% in early September. On cooler, cloudy days, they foraged at about 2500 m; they moved to elevations of about 2750 m on sunny days. Heavier males moved higher compared to smaller males, given the same increase in air temperature. Small males spent more time feeding than large males. Daily altitudinal movements are probably a thermoregulatory tactic. In a study area in France, adult males spent 6-11% of the daytime feeding. In contrast, females spent 26-33%), yearling males 20-33%, and yearling females 34-47% of the daytime feeding. Males spent more time lying, standing, and walking than females. Males of all ages spend less time foraging during the rut than before or after the rut. Lactating females are more vigilant than non-breeding females, yearlings, or males.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. During the winter, males and females may move to lower-elevation, snow-free areas. They follow the retreating snow line upward, feeding on fresh plant growth, during spring and remain at higher elevations from July to October. They prefer southand south-west-facing slopes that are steep and snow free during winter. There are regional differences in the use of elevations, but there is usually overlap between winter and summer ranges. Female groups, particularly those with young, use habitats in or close to precipitous, rocky terrain. Males are not dependent on steep habitats. They move greater distances than females, seek out alpine meadows, and make more frequent use of areas disturbed by humans, such as roads, villages, and hiking trails, which are characterized by higher forage quality. Snow cover can restrict home range size. Home ranges are larger in summer and autumn, smaller in spring, and smallest in winter; the ranges of males are larger than those of females. In northern Italy, the mean annual home range of females was 186 ha; the mean home range size was 20 ha in winter, 136 ha in summer, and intermediate in size in autumn and spring. Those of males were 300-500 ha in summer, 250-400 ha in autumn, 100-200 ha in spring, and 50-180 ha in winter. Home ranges of recently translocated populations can be several times larger than those of established populations. Males and females are spatially segregated from spring to autumn. Males associate with other males of similar age and social status. Adolescent males remain with females until about age three, when theyjoin male herds. A linear social hierarchy is established within male herds and probably also in female herds. Malesjoin female herds during the mating season.
Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Alpine Ibex was on the verge of extinction in the 1800s, but a protected population remained in northern Italy and is the source from which reestablished populations in the Alps of Austria, Switzerland, Lichtenstein, Germany, and France originated. Although there are concerns about the low genetic variability, this has not been an obstacle in succesfully establishing populations. There are now over 22,000 animals in free-ranging populations. Hunting is allowed in managed populations in Switzerland, Austria, Liechtenstein, and Slovenia.
Bibliography. Abderhalden (2005), Aeschbacher (1978), Aublet et al. (2009), Aulagnier et al. (2008), Bergeron et al. (2008), Biebach & Keller (2010), Brivio et al, (2010), Couturier (1962), Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1966), Francisci et al. (1985), Giacometti (1997), Gossow & Zeiler (1997), Grignolio, Parrini et al. (2003), Grignolio, Rossi, Bassano & Apollonio (2007), Grignolio, Rossi, Bassano, Parrini & Apollonio (2004), Grotan et al. (2008), von Hardenberg et al. (2007), Imesch-Bebié et al. (2010), Jacobson et al. (2004), Loison et al. (2002), Manceau, Després et al. (1999), Nievergelt (1966), Neuhaus & Rucksthul (2002), Parrini et al. (2009), Pedrotti & Lovari (1999a), Peracino (1995), Pidancier et al. (2006), Reimoser & Reimoser (2010), Roucher (1997), Rucksthul & Neuhaus (2001), Stuwe & Grodinsky (1987), Stuwe & Scribner (1989), Stuwe & Nievergelt (1991), Toigo (1999), Toigo, Gaillard, Festa-Bianchet et al. (2007), Toigo, Gaillard & Michallet (1997), Tosi & Lovari (1997), Valdez (1985), Villaret & Bon (1995), Villaret et al. (1997), Willisch & Neuhaus (2009, 2010), Zingg (1990).
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