Syconycteris australis (Peters, 1867)

Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2019, Pteropodidae, Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 16-162 : 104-105

75.

Southern Blossom Bat

Syconycteris australis

French: Syconyctére du Queensland / German: Sidlicher Blutenflughund / Spanish: Syconicterio de Queensland

Other common names: Blossom Bat, Common Blossom Bat, Eastern Blossom Bat

Taxonomy. Macroglossus minimus var. australis Peters, 1867 ,

Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia.

Syconycteris is sister to Macroglossus , being united as the only genera in the subfamily Macroglossinae . Syconycteris australis clearly contains multiple species based on unpublished genetic and morphological studies and is considered a species complex. Distributional limits of subspecies are uncertain. Seven subspecies recognized.

Subspecies and Distribution.

S.a.australisPeters,1867—NE&EAustraliainEQueenslandandNENewSouthWales,includingHinchinbrook,Magnetic,andFraserIs.

S.a.crassaThomas,1895—TrobriandIsandD’EntrecasteauxIs(Fergusson).

S.a.finschiMatschie,1899—AdmiraltyIs(Manus)andBismarckArchipelago(NewIreland,NewBritain,andsmallersurroundingIs).

S.a.keyensisK.Andersen,1911—KaiIs.

S.a.majorK.Andersen,1911—CMoluccas(Buru,Boano,Ambon,Haruku,andSeramIs).

S.a.naiasK.Andersen,1911—WoodlarkI.

S.a.papuanaMatschie,1899—NMoluccas(GebeI),NewGuinea(includingBatanta, S.a., Yapen, and several other offshore Is), and Aru Is (Tanahbesar = Wokam).

Also found on Biak-SupioriIs, although this population likely represents an unnamed subspecies.

Descriptive notes. Head—body 55-80 mm (tailless), ear 9-17 mm, hindfoot 7- 4-15 mm, forearm 38-48 mm; weight 13-23- 5 g. Syconycteris is very similar to Macroglossus but can be distinguished byits lack of uropatagium (strip of fur remains in its place) and I, being larger than I, with no gap between them. There is considerable variation in cranial dimensions, pelage color, and size throughout the distribution of the Southern Blossom Bat. Head and muzzle are elongated, with raised forward-facing nostrils. Fur is somewhat woolly and shorter than in the Moss-forest Blossom Bat (S. Zobbit). Dorsal pelage varies from light brown to fawn to reddish brown; ventral pelage is lighter and whiter or creamier. Young are grayer overall. Eyes are large, with dark reddish brown irises; ears are elongated, with bluntly rounded tips, and colored like dorsum. Wings and digits are dark brownish; second digit of wing has a claw. There is no uropatagium, but there is a strip of longer fur along inside of legs where uropatagium would be present; calcar is absent. Skull is elongated, with long rostrum (shorter than in Macroglossus ), and jaws and dentition are much more robust than in species of Macroglossus . Dental formula for species of Syconycterisis12/2,C1/1,P 3/3, M 2/3 (x2) = 34. Molars and premolars are largely reduced, narrow, and linear with flat tops; upper incisors are uniformly large and procumbent; M* and M, are completely missing in some populations (e.g. subspecies naias); and I, are much larger than I, and do not have any gaps between them.

Habitat. Various forested habitats, such as upper and lower montane forests, hill forests, heathlands, lowland rainforests, monsoon forests, dry sclerophyll woodlands, and Melaleuca (Myrtaceae) swamps from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 3000 m. The Southern Blossom Bat occurs sympatrically with the Moss-forest Blossom Bat in moss forests in New Guinea, and it is often found in association with plantations and gardens,especially when foraging.

Food and Feeding. The Southern Blossom Bat is a specialized nectar and pollen feeder, as evident by its long papillae-tipped tongue, but it also eats fruit. Papillae on tongue increase its surface area and act as a nectar-absorbing mop. They land on or hovers near flowers and are commonly seen with pollen covering their faces. Most of their diet comes from nectar, but they also eat pollen attached to their fur, consuming it while grooming. Pollen is considered a valuable food source because it provides a number of nutrients that are not found in nectar. Their hairs have microscopic pollentrapping scales to maximize pollen capture for consumption while grooming. As a result, the Southern Blossom Bat acts as a pollinator for the various plant species. Diet is highly variable based on availabilities of specific flowering trees that change with habitat and seasonally. In New South Wales, they feed primarily on Banksia (Proteaceae) and Callistemon (Myrtaceae) nectar and pollen, but in Queensland, theyfeed largely on nectar and pollen of Melaleuca , Banksia , Grevillea (Proteaceae) , and Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) along with a wide variety of rainforests plants (particularly Syzygium , Myrtaceae ). They have also been recorded feeding on some agriculturally important flowering plants, including Musa (Musaceae) . In Queensland, they were recorded eating fruit of a few species (especially Ficus , Moraceae ). In New Guinea, fruit makes up a larger proportion of their diet than nectar. Seeds of Ficus and Timonius (Rubiaceae) are commonly found in feces in Queensland. They were recorded feeding on fruit of Moraceae (Ficus) , Piperaceae ( Piper and Pothomorphe), Solanaceae , and other plants, including seeds that were regularly found in feces. More northerly populations tend to feed on fruit more regularly than southern populations. Northern populations seem to rarely feed on leaves. They are the key pollinator of Mucuna macropoda ( Fabaceae ) on the Sogeri Plateau, Papua New Guinea; when theyfeed, the corolla is forcibly pushed, which triggers the plant to deposit pollen into an individual's throat. In terms of energy and nutrient intake, nectar provides sugar for energy, and pollen primarily provides protein. Fruit probably provides other nutrients not found in nectar or pollen. A key factor in determining foraging location and population limitation of Southern Blossom Batsis the overall energyavailable via nectar rather than amount of protein via pollen.

Breeding. Southern Blossom Bats breed twice a year and are polygynous, giving birth in October-November and February-April in New South Wales. These two birthing periods occur one right after the other. In New Guinea, they also seem to have two litters sequentially in November—July. Nevertheless, pregnant and lactating females have been captured in January—November throughout New Guinea, suggesting that breeding occurs year-round. Litter size is one young. Gestation lasts c¢.4 months (although this might change slightly depending on how much embryonic development was delayed during torpor), and they nurse young for c.3 months. While lactating, females carry their young on their venters. Males reach sexual maturity at c.1 year old and females at 6-8 months old. Southern Blossom Bats are known to live 2-6 years (average five years) in captivity, possibly living longer in the wild.

Activity patterns. Southern Blossom Bats are nocturnal, foraging throughout much of the night. They will forage despite most weather conditions, including rain. They leave roosts at sunset and return just before dawn. Brightness of the moon seemsto affect foraging pattern by delaying departure from day roosts by as much as four hours on strongly moonlit nights (full moons). They have high energetic demands, and to conserve energy, they will go into torpor during the day. Pregnant females enter torpor to reduce their metabolic rate to less than one-half their normal rate, but they are unable to do this for as long as non-pregnant females. As ambient temperature decreases in lowland populations (0-650 m), so does body temperature and metabolic rate. They generally maintain body temperatures of 35-36°C, but when ambient temperatures decrease to lower than 30°C, body temperature can decrease after several hours, staying c.2-5—4°C above ambient temperatures. At higher elevations (6560- 2100 m, probably up to 3000 m), Southern Blossom Bats are well adapted to cope with lower temperatures and do not decrease body temperature even after being in a 14°C environment for several hours. They maintain their metabolic rate using adequate energy reserves, although exact mechanisms responsible are uncertain. They primarily roost in rainforest subcanopies but can be found in canopies. Day roosts are found under large and occasionally dead leaves, generally on growing tips of saplings, or in dense vines.

Movements, Home range and Social organization. Southern Blossom Bats primarily roost alone or in mother-young pairs. They typically do not roost in the same place every day, selecting a different roost every morning that is typically within 50 m of the previous roost. They roost near forest edges in winter and deep within forests where it is cooler in summer. While foraging throughout the night, they will travel up to 4 km from their roosts to feeding areas, which can take 2-3 hours to get to because individuals sample other food sources along the way. They make the samejourney back to their roosting area early in the morning. They are highly territorial of their feeding areas and chase off conspecifics in their foraging area. Males seem to be more aggressive in their home ranges and apparently fly closer to the ground more often than females. Males seem to be more localized than females based on recapture rates. Near Crater Mountain Volcano in Papua New Guinea, nearly all recaptured individuals were males (recapture rate was 10-3%). Foraging areas are generally c.13 ha, and they use the same general area every night. Densities are 1-18 ind/ha and depend largely on availability of nectar rather than pollen. Sex ratio at Crater Mountain over a 14-month period was 0-71:0-29; bias toward males might have been due to sampling bias relative to where females foraged and flew because mist nets were 4 m aboveground.

Status and Conservation. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List. The Southern Blossom Bat seems to be highly adaptable and tolerant of habitat modification and does not seem to face any major threats. Nevertheless, south of Fraser Island in Queensland, it is locally threatened by drainage of Melaleuca (Myrtaceae) swamps. Additional research on its taxonomy could result in designation of new species with smaller distributions and populations that could be threatened.

Bibliography. Aplin & Armstrong (2016a), Birt et al. (1997), Bonaccorso (1998), Bonaccorso & McNab (1997), Churchill (2008), Coburn & Geiser (1998), Dumont & O'Neal (2004), Flannery (1995a, 1995b), Geiser & Coburn (1999), Geiser, Coburn et al. (1996), Geiser, Kortner & Law (2001), Geiser, Law & Kértner (2005), Giannini & Simmons (2007a), Kitchener, Packer & Maryanto (1994), Law (1992a, 1992b, 1993a, 1993b, 1994a, 1994b, 1995, 1996, 1997 2001), Law & Lean (1999), Law & Spencer (2008), Lawrence (1991), Nelson (1964a), Nicolay & Dumont (2000), Winkelmann etal. (2000).

Figures

73. Lesser Long-tongued Blossom Bat (Macroglossus minimus), 74. Greater Long-tongued Blossom Bat (Macroglossus sobrinus), 75. Southern Blossom Bat (Syconycteris australis), 76. Halmaheran Blossom Bat (Syconycteris carolinae), 77. Moss-forest Blossom Bat (Syconycteris hobbit), 78. Manado Fruit Bat (Boneia bidens), 79. Sulawesi Harpy Fruit Bat (Harpyionycteris celebensis), 80. Philippine Harpy Fruit Bat (Harpyionycteris whitehead), 81. Bulmer’s Fruit Bat (Aproteles bulmerae), 82. Lesser Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia minor), 83. Moluccan Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia moluccensis), 84. Western Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia peronu), 86. Panniet Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia pannietensis), 87. Philippine Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia chapmani), 88. Biak Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia emersa), 89. Sulawesi Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia exoleta), 90. Greenish Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia viridis), 91. Beaufort’s Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia beauforti), 92. Halmahera Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia crenulata), 93. Solomons Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia inermis), 94. New Britain Naked-backed Fruit Bat (Dobsonia praedatrix)

Subspecies and Distribution. S.a.australisPeters,1867—NE&EAustraliainEQueenslandandNENewSouthWales,includingHinchinbrook,Magnetic,andFraserIs. S.a.crassaThomas,1895—TrobriandIsandD’EntrecasteauxIs(Fergusson). S.a.finschiMatschie,1899—AdmiraltyIs(Manus)andBismarckArchipelago(NewIreland,NewBritain,andsmallersurroundingIs). S.a.keyensisK.Andersen,1911—KaiIs. S.a.majorK.Andersen,1911—CMoluccas(Buru,Boano,Ambon,Haruku,andSeramIs). S.a.naiasK.Andersen,1911—WoodlarkI. S.a.papuanaMatschie,1899—NMoluccas(GebeI),NewGuinea(includingBatanta, S.a., Yapen, and several other offshore Is), and Aru Is (Tanahbesar = Wokam). Also found on Biak-SupioriIs, although this population likely represents an unnamed subspecies.