Pteropus medius, Temminck, 1825
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publication ID |
https://doi.org/ 10.5281/zenodo.6448815 |
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https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6795025 |
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persistent identifier |
https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03AD87FA-FFA7-F64E-8C6C-31BFFCBDF636 |
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Conny |
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Pteropus medius |
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180. View Plate 11: Pteropodidae
Indian Flying Fox
French: Roussette indienne / German: Indischer Flughund / Spanish: Zorro volador de la India
Taxonomy. Pteropus medius Temminck, 1825 View in CoL ,
“Le continent de I'Inde, aux enwvirons de Calcutta et de Pondichéry.”
Pteropus medius is in the wvampyrus species group. Its taxonomy is problematic; epithet medius replaces giganteus by M. T. Briinnich in 1782 (junior objective synonym of P. vampyrus ). It is possibly conspecific with P. vampyrus and could also include part of P. intermedius (considered here to be conspecific with P. vampyrus , pending revision). Subspecies chinghaiensis is a nomen nudum, and the single Qinghai specimen is considered to be alien in China. Three subspecies recognized.
Subspecies and Distribution.
P.m.mediusTemminck,1825—WPakistan,India(exceptNE),SriLanka,Bangladesh,WMyanmar,andAndamanIs.
P.m.arielG.M.Allen,1908—MaldivesIs.
P. m. leucocephalus Hodgson, 1835 — Nepal, NE India (Sikkim, Assam, and Manipur), and Bhutan. View Figure
Descriptive notes. Head—body 220-247 mm (tailless), ear 37-42 mm, hindfoot 45- 55 mm, forearm 163-176 mm; weight 1.1- 2 kg. Muzzle of the Indian Flying Fox is long, tapering, and dark brown. Eyes are relatively large, with dark brown irises. Ears are very long, exposed, and pointed. Head and body pelage are generally short but longest in subspecies leucocephalus. Crown is highly variable from brown to more rufous or yellowish shades. Mantle strongly contrasts with back, from golden buffy to ocherous, extending to sides of neck with same or more intense tinge. Males have tuft of glandular, more rigid hairs on sides of neck that are slightly warmer in tinge that surrounding pelage. Back is seal-brown; hairs are closely adpressed and inconspicuously grizzled; rump is often tinged in earthy brown. Throat is dark brown. Breast and belly are always paler than back but vary considerably across individuals and regions from almost golden buff to cinnamon rufous or even light russet-brown. Flanks are dark brown. Genital area is dark brown, and lower belly is brown. Uropatagium is well developed in center; calcar is short. Wing membranes are dark brown; index claw is present. Skull is typical pteropine; rostrum is long and pointed, profile gently sloping into gentle rise; orbit is large; zygoma is wide but relatively thin and strongly arched; basicranial deflection is strong; postorbital foramina are small; postorbital constriction is obvious; temporallines are joined low, but sagittal crest is sharp; nuchal crest is obvious; palate is flat and long; tooth rows gently diverge posteriorly; and post-dental palate is long. Mandible has long, sloping symphysis, thick body, and coronoid. Palatal ridges 5 + 6 + 3 or 5 + 5 + 3 pattern. Dentition is typical pteropine, but cingula and ledges are poorly developed in canines and cheekteeth; M, is small, peg-like, and displaced lingually. Chromosomal complement has 2n = 38 and FN = 68, with seven pairs of metacentric, nine pairs of submetacentric to subtelocentric, and two pairs of acrocentric autosomes. X-chromosome is metacentric, and Y-chromosome is acrocentric.
Habitat. Various forested habitats from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 2000 m. Roosting habitat is located preferentially in areas with lower-than-average rainfall, away from flooded areas, and close to human settlements, thus increasing up to six fold the probability of zoonotic diseases spread, particularly Nipah virus outbreaks (particularly in Bangladesh).
Food and Feeding. The Indian Flying Fox is mainly frugivorous but also includes flower products and leaves in its diet. It feeds on fruit from at least 17 plant genera in 13 families. Figs ( Ficus , Moraceae ) are dominant in diets. Most fruits consumed are either yellow or green. It feeds on flowers of Mangifera (Anacardiaceae) ; Cocos (Arecaceae) ; Grevillea (Proteacae) ; Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) ; Albizia and Erythrina (both Fabaceae ); Hevea (Euphorbiaceae) ; and Ceiba (Malvaceae) . Flowers are white, yellow, or red. In Myanmar, diet contains fruits of 24 species in 19 families, flowers of six species in six families, and leaves of Albizia , Bombax (Malvaceae) , and Ceiba . Active symbiotic cellulolytic and xylanolytic bacteria were isolated in the intestine of the Indian Flying Fox so consumption of leaves and fruit fiber represent carbohydrate sources. Fruits are taken from trees and carried away to nearby roost trees where they are squeezed, and fibers and seeds are rejected; foraging activity results in active seed and pollen dispersal.
Breeding. The Indian Flying Fox is seasonally monoestrous. It mates in July—October in India. Copulation occurs mainly in morning. Male approaches female while wing fanning and vocalizing; female moves away, and when she stops, male licks her genitals, and they copulate for 10-40 seconds, with frequent vaginal licking by the male after copulation. Gestation lasts 140-150 days. One young is born each year in maternity colonies in February-March ( India). Mothers carry young in flight. Young are weaned at ¢.5 months old. Sexual maturity occurs at 1-1-5 years old. Maximum longevity in captivity is more than 40 years.
Activity patterns. Indian Flying Foxes are crepuscular and nocturnal. They leave roosts at ¢.18:00 h and circle the site before dispersing in all directions to forage. Individuals return to roosts just before dawn. They visit ponds and drink water on the wing. Core body temperature was 36-7°C at ambient temperatures (0-32°C). Average basal metabolism was 0-52 cm? O,/g/h, or 92% of the value expected based on mean weight.
Movements, Home range and Social organization. Indian Flying Foxes are highly colonial, and roosts can contain hundreds to thousands of both sexes in emergent trees (average 20 m tall) in rural areas and urban environments close to agriculturalfields. In Bangladesh, colony size was larger in dense forest than in other environments; colony size averaged 387 individuals and reached a maximum of 2700 individuals; however, a colony of more than 24,000 individuals spread over 2 ha in Sri Lanka is likely the largest known colony. A majority (65%) of roosting sites are intermittently occupied for ten or more years, and 87% of roosting sites are occupied year-round. A roosting site in southern India was occupied for more than 75 years. Nightly foraging commutes are up to 150 km. Day activity is typically pteropine, including wing flapping and antagonistic territorial interactions.
Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCN Red List (as P. giganteus ). Population of the Indian Flying Fox is suspected to be declining but not at a rate that justifies changing its conservation category. It is hunted for food and medicine in parts of its distribution. Loss of roosting trees to logging and road construction might be a threat, but moderate deforestation might be beneficial because it is tolerant to disturbance. It is listed as vermin under Schedule V of the Indian Wildlife Protection Act and persecuted by farmers. Culling of Indian Flying Foxes in conflict with fruit growers has reduced island populations on the Maldives (subspecies ariel) by up to 80%. This subspecies can be considered endangered chiefly due to its limited insular distribution and human-wildlife conflict. Subspecies leucocephalus is protected in Nepal under wildlife regulations. It is indirectly protected in regions of the Indian subcontinent where it is considered sacred (e.g. southern India).
Bibliography. Almeida et al. (2014), Anand & Sripathi (2004), Andersen (1912b), Brannich (1782), Chakravarthy et al. (2009), Hahn, Epstein et al. (2014), KryStufek (2009), Marimuthu (1992), Maruthupandian & Marimuthu (2013), McNab & Armstrong (2001), Mlikovsky (2012), Molur & Molur (2007), Molur, Pathak (1965), Win Sein-Sein & Mya Khin-Mya (2015), Zhang Jinshuo et al. (2010).
No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.
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Pteropus medius
| Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier 2019 |
Pteropus medius
| Temminck 1825 |