identifier	taxonID	type	CVterm	format	language	title	description	additionalInformationURL	UsageTerms	rights	Owner	contributor	creator	bibliographicCitation
03998866FFF4FF860BA7FA82ED0DEADE.text	03998866FFF4FF860BA7FA82ED0DEADE.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Kappaphycus alvarezii	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Kappaphycus alvarezii</p>
            <p> Kappaphycus alvarezii is one of the most widely traded tropical red seaweeds, utilized as a source for the extraction of the commercially important phycocolloid kappa-carrageenan (κ- carrageenan). Due to its unique gelling properties, kappa-carrageenan is used as an emulsifier, binder, thickener and gelling agent in a diverse range of products including toothpaste, cosmetics, ice cream, pet foods, beverages, pharmaceuticals, personal care and dairy products. </p>
            <p> Farming of  Kappaphycus alvarezii in India originated with a few grams of biomass imported from Japan by CSIR-CSMCRI in the early 1990s; the importation followed the quarantine procedures appropriate for cultivation and utilization. Initial out-planting trials were done along the Northwest’s Okha coast following laboratory acclimatization studies. Subsequently, southeast Tamil Nadu’s Mandapam coast was explored for its suitability as a potential cultivation region from 1995 to 1997. Initial field trials evaluated a variety of cultivation methods, including (a) polythene bags, (b) fish net bags and (c) net enclosed open culture (Eswaran et al. 2002). Eventually, the bamboo raft method was adopted. In this method, 3 × 3 m rafts made with 7–8 cm diameter bamboo were reinforced utilizing diagonally orientated bamboo braces approximately 1.3 m long to maintain integrity in open sea conditions. Lower portions of the rafts were covered with fishing net minimizing grazing and biomass drifting. Twenty plantings (fresh cuttings) of approximately 100 g. each were attached to raft ropes (3 mm thick polypropylene) at regular intervals using a braider. The seeded ropes were tied at both ends of the bamboo rafts at 15-cm intervals. Initial seeding weight of each raft averaged 40 kg fresh wt. and rafts were moored in clusters of 5–10 and anchored to 30-kg mooring stones. Deployed seaweed cuttings began growing immediately and were harvested after a growth period of approximately 45 days (Figure 8A,B; Mantri et al. 2017). </p>
            <p> Kappaphycus alvarezii  commercial cultivation was initiated in 2001 along the southeast coast of Tamil Nadu by  Pepsico India Holdings (P) Ltd., Gurgaon, India after licensing cultivation technology from CSIR-CSMCRI, Bhavnagar. The company successfully adopted a contractfarming model with buy-back arrangements for seaweed produced by the women’s Self-help Groups (SHGs). Infrastructure was provided to the SHGs through the national bank subsidies. The contract farming model allocated 45 rafts to each SHG individual member. The amount of distributed rafts was tied to the planting and harvesting 45-day scheduled farming period. Each farmer could conveniently plant and harvest one raft per day. Harvests averaged 240 kg of live seaweed per raft with approximately 40 kg used as raft seeding material for the subsequent farming cycle, leaving 200 kg of fresh biomass or 20 kg of dry seaweed available for sale. More than 1500 households along the Tamil Nadu coast engaged in seaweed farming as an alternative livelihood, each earning approximately US $300 per month (Table 1)  . </p>
            <p> Seaweed cultivation has emerged as viable option for the economic improvement of low income coastal communities in India (Krishnan and Narayanakumar 2010, Periyasami et al. 2014, 2015, Mantri et al. 2017). Production increased significantly from 21 dry metric tonnes in 2001–1490 dry tonnes in 2013, totaling 7187 dry tonnes biomass, worth US $2.5 million during the 13-year cultivation period (Mantri et al. 2017).  Kappaphycus alvarezii commercial farming from Tamil Nadu experienced a </p>
            <p>Tamil Nadu and expansion is underway in Gujarat, where commercial activities commenced in 2017.</p>
            <p> Hypnea musciformis</p>
            <p> Hypnea musciformis (Wulfen) J.V. Lamouroux is an indigenous carrageenophyte yielding kappa-carrageenan.  Hypnea musciformis is found in natural beds along the shorelines of several Gulf of Mannar islands. Lagoon waters of Krusadai Island were selected for pilot-scale cultivation of  H. musciformis utilizing the monoline method (Figure 9; Ganesan et al. 2006). Young actively growing apical portions of  H. musciformis ranging from 2 to 2.5 g fresh wt. and 5 cm long, were inserted between the braids of 20-m long coir ropes made from coconut husks. The ropes were anchored to wooden stakes and kept afloat with plastic floats. A total of 2000 m of coir ropes were seeded and placed in 10 plots, each consisting of 10 ropes, each 20 m long.  Hypnea was harvested at 25-day intervals reaching 30–35 cm lengths. Thalli were clipped leaving fragments to grow further. Harvests ranged from 250 to 300 g fresh wt m−1 rope (Ganesan et al. 2006). Fifteen harvests per year yielded a total biomass of 38–40 tonnes fresh wt ha−1 year−1 (Ganesan et al. 2006). </p>
            <p> significant decline in 2013 correlated with a sudden rise in seawater temperature to 36°C and a subsequent onset of bacterial disease. Crop production yields slowly recovered starting in 2016 and increased production is anticipated in the next couple of years.  Kappaphycus alvarezii commercial production has expanded to six coastal districts in </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03998866FFF4FF860BA7FA82ED0DEADE	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram;Trivedi, Nitin;Gupta, Vishal;Madhav, S. Venu;Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna;Levine, Ira A.	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram, Trivedi, Nitin, Gupta, Vishal, Madhav, S. Venu, Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna, Levine, Ira A. (2019): Seaweed resources in India - current status of diversity and cultivation: prospects and challenges. Botanica Marina (Warsaw, Poland) 62 (5): 463-482, DOI: 10.1515/bot-2018-0056, URL: https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2018-0056
03998866FFF5FF890817FBCDEB97E913.text	03998866FFF5FF890817FBCDEB97E913.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Sarconema filiforme (Sonder) Kylin 1932	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Sarconema filiforme</p>
            <p> Sarconema filiforme (Sonder) Kylin is a carrageenophyte containing hybrids of α- carrageenan, iota-carrageenan and pyruvated α- carrageenan (Ganesan et al. 2015a). Currently, industrial utilization of hybrid carrageenans, especially in the food and cosmetic industries, is significantly increasing. Indian waters have two species of  Sarconema viz.  S. scinaioides and  S. filiforme ; of these two species,  S. scinaioides inhabits the intertidal region of India’s north west coast (Jha et al. 2009), while  S. filiforme is sparsely distributed along the southeast and northwest coasts (Oza and Zaidi 2001). Pilot-scale cultivation of  S. filiforme was completed along the Mandapam coast, utilizing the bamboo raft method. Young and actively growing  S. filiforme (average 0.8 ± 0.25 g fresh wt) were attached to the ropes at 5-cm intervals. Attached to each rope were 25 algal cuttings totaling 20 g. fresh wt rope−1. Each raft, with 20 ropes, totaled 400 g fresh wt equivalent to 160 g fresh wt m−2 (Ganesan et al. 2015a). </p>
            <p> Sarconema reached harvestable size in 25 days and all plants were completely harvested and ropes were freshly stocked with new cuttings after every harvest (Figure 10). 100 rafts were planted with  S. filiforme and seven harvests were completed each year for 3 consecutive years from 2011 to 2013. An average of 2.3 kg fresh wt m−2 was harvested from the initial inocula of 160 g fresh wt m−2. An average of 150 fresh tonnes ha−1 year−1 of  S. filiforme could be obtained utilizing this method (Ganesan et al. 2015a). </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03998866FFF5FF890817FBCDEB97E913	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram;Trivedi, Nitin;Gupta, Vishal;Madhav, S. Venu;Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna;Levine, Ira A.	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram, Trivedi, Nitin, Gupta, Vishal, Madhav, S. Venu, Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna, Levine, Ira A. (2019): Seaweed resources in India - current status of diversity and cultivation: prospects and challenges. Botanica Marina (Warsaw, Poland) 62 (5): 463-482, DOI: 10.1515/bot-2018-0056, URL: https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2018-0056
03998866FFFAFF880835F938EB42EC29.text	03998866FFFAFF880835F938EB42EC29.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gelidiella acerosa	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Gelidiella acerosa</p>
            <p> Gelidiella acerosa is the preferred source of raw material for the production of Indian pharmaceutical and bacteriological grade agar with a gel strength ranging from 850 to 2200 g cm 2 (Ganesan et al. 2015b). Indian agar processors produce an average of 100 tonnes of pharmacological grade agar from  G. acerosa . Unscrupulous harvesting of natural seaweed beds continuously led to gradual reduction of wild standing stocks. The over exploitation of natural  Gelidiella populations necessitated the development of cultivation methods for farming seaweeds. Initial methods included long-line ropes (Subbaramaiah et al. 1975), single rope floating technique (SRFT; Subbaramaiah and Banumathi 1992), coral stone culture method (Patel et al. 1986), and concrete stone method (Ganesan et al. 2009). These methods resulted in low biomass yields and were difficult to manage in terms of planting, monitoring and harvest practices. Therefore, it became necessary to develop improved methods resulting in higher biomass and easier cultivation operations. The bamboo raft method successfully used for the commercial cultivation of  Kappaphycus alvarezii was adopted for  G. acerosa (Figure 11A; Ganesan et al. 2009) yielding significantly higher harvested biomass than previous methods. The suspended stone method was developed to enhance the bamboo raft method by tying approximately 2 g of seedlings to nylon thread, which was wound around the stones (15–70 cm 2 area and 100–200 g weight) and hung 5 cm below the polypropylene ropes (3 mm diam). The polypropylene ropes were tied across the bamboo frames of 1.5 × 1.5 m size. The suspended ropes orientated the algal thalli upwards. Eight inoculated stones were tied to each rope with 10 polypropylene ropes per square raft (2.0 × 2.0 m). Each raft was seeded with 160 g fresh biomass equivalent to 71 g fresh wt m−2. Harvesting entailed cutting erect thalli and leaving the basal portions on the stones for further growth (Figure 11B). The stone-modified raft method resulted in three harvests per year yielding 8–15 kg fresh wt raft−1 per harvest (Ganesan et al. 2011). </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03998866FFFAFF880835F938EB42EC29	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram;Trivedi, Nitin;Gupta, Vishal;Madhav, S. Venu;Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna;Levine, Ira A.	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram, Trivedi, Nitin, Gupta, Vishal, Madhav, S. Venu, Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna, Levine, Ira A. (2019): Seaweed resources in India - current status of diversity and cultivation: prospects and challenges. Botanica Marina (Warsaw, Poland) 62 (5): 463-482, DOI: 10.1515/bot-2018-0056, URL: https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2018-0056
03998866FFFBFF880817FC9DED60E891.text	03998866FFFBFF880817FC9DED60E891.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gracilaria edulis	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Gracilaria edulis</p>
            <p> Gracilaria edulis , the major raw material source for Indian food-grade agar, exhibits a gel strength of approximately 490 g cm−2 with 8% alkali treatment (Meena et al. 2008). Although the Indian coastline has 32 species of  Gracilaria (Krishnamurthy 1971) ,  G. edulis is the dominant alga with significant standing stocks. Indian agar industries annually harvest 100–200 dry tonnes of  G. edulis from wild stocks along the southeast coast of India. Over-harvesting of this resource has led to depletion of wild stocks. Several technologies have been developed for  G. edulis cultivation. The long-line rope method yielded approximately 20 tonnes dry wt ha−1 y−1 (Raju and Thomas 1971) and increased to 30 tonnes dry wt ha−1 y−1 with the adoption of the Single Raft Floating Technique (Subbaramaiah and Thomas 1995). Both methods experienced significant grazing pressure hindering their commercial scale adoption. Finally, the bamboo raft method was adopted for  G. edulis cultivation as this method minimized seaweed drifting and herbivore grazing by covering the lower portion of bamboo raft below the planted ropes with fishing net. </p>
            <p> In the bamboo raft method, young fragments of  Gracilaria edulis (average 2.0 ± 0.25 g fresh wt) were tied to polypropylene ropes at 5-cm intervals. Each rope contained 25 seedlings with a total fresh weight of 50 g rope−1. A bamboo raft (2 × 2 m size) with 20 ropes had an initial seedling biomass of 1.0 kg fresh wt raft −1 (Figure 12A). Seven harvests were completed in a year (Figure 12B) and 35 tonnes dry wt ha−1 y−1 were harvested (Ganesan et al. 2011). </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03998866FFFBFF880817FC9DED60E891	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram;Trivedi, Nitin;Gupta, Vishal;Madhav, S. Venu;Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna;Levine, Ira A.	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram, Trivedi, Nitin, Gupta, Vishal, Madhav, S. Venu, Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna, Levine, Ira A. (2019): Seaweed resources in India - current status of diversity and cultivation: prospects and challenges. Botanica Marina (Warsaw, Poland) 62 (5): 463-482, DOI: 10.1515/bot-2018-0056, URL: https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2018-0056
03998866FFF8FF8B0BA7FA60EB0CE9BF.text	03998866FFF8FF8B0BA7FA60EB0CE9BF.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gracilaria dura	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Gracilaria dura</p>
            <p> Gracilaria dura (C. Agardh) J. Agardh attracts significant interest as a source of agarose with a gel strength of 2200 g cm−2, gelling temperature of 30°C and sulfate content of 0.15% (Prasad et al. 2007). The distribution of  G. dura is restricted to the west coast of India. Several experimental scale cultivation methods were initiated along India’s southeast coast including the bottom net, net bag, net pouch and bamboo raft methods (Veeragurunathan et al. 2015). Ultimately, the bamboo raft method resulted in the largest yield. Bamboo rafts (2 × 2 m size), with initial plant density of 1.2 kg fresh wt raft−1, yielded 8 kg fresh wt raft− 1 in 45- to 60-day cultivation cycles. Six harvests were achieved in a year (Figure 13A). </p>
            <p> Recently, an initial cultivation effort for  G. dura along the Simar, Gujarat coast, in northwest of India has utilized the tube-net method. The tube-net method’s seed material (10 kg fresh) was uniformly loaded in 25-m tube nets made from fishing nets and sealed at both ends with polypropylene rope (Figure 13B), then transplanted in rows to the shallow coastal waters with anchor supports and floats. The daily average growth of  G. dura ranged from 2 to 3% day−1 and the yield was 30–35 kg fresh biomass in 40–45 days (Mantri, personal communication). </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03998866FFF8FF8B0BA7FA60EB0CE9BF	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram;Trivedi, Nitin;Gupta, Vishal;Madhav, S. Venu;Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna;Levine, Ira A.	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram, Trivedi, Nitin, Gupta, Vishal, Madhav, S. Venu, Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna, Levine, Ira A. (2019): Seaweed resources in India - current status of diversity and cultivation: prospects and challenges. Botanica Marina (Warsaw, Poland) 62 (5): 463-482, DOI: 10.1515/bot-2018-0056, URL: https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2018-0056
03998866FFF8FF8A0835F8E5EC32E936.text	03998866FFF8FF8A0835F8E5EC32E936.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gracilaria salicornia	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Gracilaria salicornia</p>
            <p> Recently,  Gracilaria salicornia has been commercially harvested from wild stocks as a result of the decline of </p>
            <p> Gracilaria edulis standing stock. The agar from this alga has a gel strength of approximately 510 g · cm 2 (Meena et al. 2008). Over-harvesting of  Gr salicornia depleted the standing stock resulting in its cultivation by adopting the tube-net method. Each single tube net is filled with 400 g of  G. salicornia seed material. The raft (2 × 2 m size) consists of 15 tube nets totaling an initial biomass of 6.0 kg fresh weight with harvesting every 30–40 days as thalli attain harvestable size. Harvest yields range from 14.1 to 60.62 kg fresh wt raft−1 (Figure 14) with seven harvests each year (Ganesan et al., unpublished). </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03998866FFF8FF8A0835F8E5EC32E936	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram;Trivedi, Nitin;Gupta, Vishal;Madhav, S. Venu;Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna;Levine, Ira A.	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram, Trivedi, Nitin, Gupta, Vishal, Madhav, S. Venu, Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna, Levine, Ira A. (2019): Seaweed resources in India - current status of diversity and cultivation: prospects and challenges. Botanica Marina (Warsaw, Poland) 62 (5): 463-482, DOI: 10.1515/bot-2018-0056, URL: https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2018-0056
03998866FFF9FF8A0B89F97FEBBBEAAA.text	03998866FFF9FF8A0B89F97FEBBBEAAA.taxon	http://purl.org/dc/dcmitype/Text	http://rs.tdwg.org/ontology/voc/SPMInfoItems#GeneralDescription	text/html	en	Gracilaria crassa	<html xmlns:mods="http://www.loc.gov/mods/v3">
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            <p> Gracilaria crassa</p>
            <p> Gracilaria crassa Harvey ex J. Agardh is an important agarophyte yielding agar with a gel strength of approximately 800 g cm−2 with 8% alkali treatment (Meena et al. 2008). Standing stocks of  G. crassa are limited to a few locations along the southeast and northwest coasts of India. Recent cultivation efforts included 10 tube-nets inoculated with 10 kg fresh wt raft−1.  A maximum of 30 kg biomass was harvested at the end of a 45-day growing cycle (Figure 15). </p>
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	https://treatment.plazi.org/id/03998866FFF9FF8A0B89F97FEBBBEAAA	Public Domain	No known copyright restrictions apply. See Agosti, D., Egloff, W., 2009. Taxonomic information exchange and copyright: the Plazi approach. BMC Research Notes 2009, 2:53 for further explanation.		Plazi	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram;Trivedi, Nitin;Gupta, Vishal;Madhav, S. Venu;Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna;Levine, Ira A.	Ganesan, Review Meenakshisundaram, Trivedi, Nitin, Gupta, Vishal, Madhav, S. Venu, Reddy, Chennur Radhakrishna, Levine, Ira A. (2019): Seaweed resources in India - current status of diversity and cultivation: prospects and challenges. Botanica Marina (Warsaw, Poland) 62 (5): 463-482, DOI: 10.1515/bot-2018-0056, URL: https://doi.org/10.1515/bot-2018-0056
