Autapomorphies of Rhaphiodon vulpinus:

1. Posterior laminar expansion of epiphyseal bar (1): (0> 1) present. Paralleled in Piabucus melanostomus .

2. Form of anterior process of lateral ethmoid (14): (1> 0) broad in ventral view, contacting proximal region of vomer in its entire length. Reversal of synapomorphy 1 of node 179. Paralleled in Aulixidens eugeniae and Salminus brasiliensis .

3. Synchondral articulation between lateral ethmoid and anterodorsal border of orbitosphenoid (35): (1> 0) present. Paralleled in the Aphyocharacinae and in Leporinus striatus, Mimagoniates rheocharis, Pristella maxillaris, and Rhaphiodon vulpinus .

4. Form of orbitosphenoid (37): (0> 1) massive, almost reaching parasphenoid ventrally. Reversal of synapomorphy 1 of the Characidae . Paralleled in node 193 and in Markiana nigripinnis and Roeboides microlepis .

5. Pores of laterosensory canal of lower jaw (80): (0> 1) seven or more. Paralleled in nodes 211 and 299.

6. Form of lateral line (89): (1> 0) approximately straight. Reversal of synapomorphy 2 of the Characoidea .

7. Position of coronomeckelian (110): (0> 1) situated mainly dorsal to Meckelian cartilage. Reversal of synapomorphy 4 of node 176.

8. Inner row of dentary teeth (143): (0> 1) absent. Paralleled in the Gasteropelecidae, in nodes 166, 168, and 189, and in Serrasalmus maculatus .

9. Patch of ectopterygoid teeth (160): (0> 1) present. Paralleled in Hoplias cf. malabaricus .

10. Suprapreopercle (175): (0> 1) autogenous, separated from preopercle. Paralleled in nodes 210 and 302 and in Markiana nigripinnis and Roeboides microlepis .

11. Articulation between anterior and posterior ceratohyals (181): (0> 1) with bony interdigitations. Paralleled in node 210 and in Hoplias cf. malabaricus and Salminus brasiliensis .

12. Bony lamellae between second and third basibranchials (184): (1> 0) absent. Paralleled in the Serrasalmidae and in Attonitus ephimeros, Axelrodia lindeae, Hollandichthys multifasciatus, Hoplocharax goethei, Jupiaba scologaster, Piabucus melanostomus, Pyrrhulina australis, and Xenagoniates bondi .

13. Rows of gill rakers on first ceratobranchial (192): (0> 1) two. Reversal of synapomorphy 3 of node 179. Paralleled in the Iguanodectinae, in node 280, and in Brycon orbignyanus, Bryconaethiops macrops, Carlana eigenmanni, Cheirodon interruptus, Hoplocharax goethei, Hyphessobrycon elachys, Odontostilbe microcephala, Parecbasis cyclolepis, and Prodontocharax melanotus . Some trees: Paralleled in node 249 and in Attonitus ephimeros .

14. Rows of gill rakers on second ceratobranchial (193): (0> 1) two. Paralleled in nodes 210, 225, 276, and 297 and in Brycon orbignyanus, Hoplocharax goethei, and Hyphessobrycon elachys .

15. Rows of gill rakers on first epibranchial (203): (0> 1) two. Reversal of synapomorphy 9 of node 176.

16. Number of branchiostegal rays (213): (0> 1) five. Paralleled in Characidium borellii, Hoplias cf. malabaricus, Piaractus mesopotamicus, and Thoracocharax stellatus .

17. Anterior portions of branchiostegal rays (214): (0> 1) slender near their articulation with ceratohyals. Paralleled in nodes 212 and 256.

18. Ascending process of neural pedicle of third vertebra (220): (1> 0) absent. Reversal of synapomorphy 6 of node 180.

19. Dorsal development of cleithrum (237): (0> 1) ending in a position just dorsal of tip of mesocoracoid. Paralleled in node 302.

20. Development of medial lamella of coracoid (238): (0> 1) expanded as a keel. Paralleled in nodes 170 and 302 and in Paragoniates alburnus, Piabucus melanostomus, and Pseudocorynopoma doriae .

21. Second postcleithrum (248): (0> 1) absent. Paralleled in the Gasteropelecidae, in node 302, and in Pseudocorynopoma doriae .

22. Third postcleithrum (249): (0> 1) absent. Paralleled in the Gasteropelecidae, in node 302, and in Piabucus melanostomus, Pyrrhulina australis, and Xenagoniates bondi .

23. Ventral exit of laterosensory canal of supracleithrum (254): (0> 1) ventral to lamella of supracleithrum and exiting on posterior margin of this bone. Paralleled in node 205.

24. Anterior extension of pelvic-bone along main axis (262): (0> 1) projecting anterior of lateral and medial lamellae of pelvic bone. Paralleled in the Gasteropelecidae, in node 302, and in Hoplias cf. malabaricus, Piabucus melanostomus, and Stethaprion erythrops .

25. Number of dorsal-fin rays on last pterygiophore (272): (0> 1) two, adnate.

26. Dorsal myorhabdoi (273): (0> 1) present. Paralleled in node 170.

27. Number of branched anal-fin rays (289): (0> 1) 35 or more. Paralleled in nodes 207 and 212 and in Gymnocorymbus ternetzi, Metynnis maculatus, Piabucus melanostomus, Pseudocorynopoma doriae, Stethaprion erythrops, and Thoracocharax stellatus . Some trees: Paralleled in node 261 and in Markiana nigripinnis .

28. Scales covering anal-fin base (327): (0> 1) several rows covering basal third of anal fin. Paralleled in the Serrasalmidae, in nodes 210 and 221, and in Bario steindachneri, Markiana nigripinnis, Paragoniates alburnus, Roeboides microlepis, and Thoracocharax stellatus .

29. Posterior region of levator arcus palatini (337): (0> 1) limited lateral and medially by A2 and A3 sections of adductor mandibulae. Paralleled in Piabina argentea .

30. Number of 2n chromosomes (363): (0> 1) 52 or more. Paralleled in the Characinae and Serrasalmidae, in node 196, and in Chalceus macrolepidotus, Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi, and Markiana nigripinnis . Some trees: Paralleled in Hemigrammus unilineatus .

31. Number of 2n chromosomes (364): (0> 1) 54 or more. Paralleled in the Serrasalmidae .