Sminthopsis psammophila, Spencer, 1895

Russell A. Mittermeier & Don E. Wilson, 2015, Dasyuridae, Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 5 Monotremes and Marsupials, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 232-348 : 346-347

72.

Sandhill Dunnart

Sminthopsis psammophila

French: Dunnart du désert / German: Sand-Schmalful 3beutelmaus / Spanish: Raton marsupial del desierto

Other common names: Large Desert Marsupial Mouse, Large Desert Sminthopsis, Sandhill Sminthopsis

Taxonomy. Sminthopsis psammophila Spencer, 1895 ,

Lake Amadeus , Northern Territory, Australia.

Phylogenetic relationships of species comprising Sminthopsinae have been the subject of considerable morphological and molecular investigation. Collectively, genetic work has not supported monophyly of the genus Sminthopsis with respect to Antechinomys and Ningawi. In a recent study, there were three deeply divergent clades of Sminthopsis . In the first, S. longicaudata wassister to A. laniger . The second clade was composed of the traditional morphologically based Macroura Group: five Sminthopsis comprised a strongly supported clade that included S. crassicaudata , S. bindi , S. macroura , S. douglasi , and S. virginiae . This clade of five dunnarts was positioned as poorly supported sister to the three species of Ningaui (N. rider, N. timealeyi , and N. yvonneae). The combined clade of five Sminthopsis and three Ningaui was itself poorly supported as sister to a well-supported clade containing the remaining species of Sminthopsis (13 species in the Murina supergroup). This large dunnart clade contained a clade including S. psammophila , S. youngsoni , and S. hirtipes , all of which were genetically distinct. The type specimen of S. psammophila was collected during the Horn Expedition on 18 June 1894. In his description the following year, W. B. Spencer noted that the specimen was first observed by Mounted Trooper Cowle, a member of the survey team in central Australia, near Lake Amadeus. The adult male S. psammophila was flushed from cover in broad daylight and led its captors a merry chase, until brought down by an accurately thrown boot. S. psammophila then promptly disappeared for 75 years until reappearing briefly in April 1969 at Mamblyn on Eyre Peninsula, South Australia. A startled farmer dropped his hat on a second male asit fled from burning spinifex (7riodia spp., Poaceae ). He sent it to the South Australian Museum in a battered shoebox loosely tied with string where the specimen was identified by astounded taxonomists. Two months later, four juveniles were captured as they fled from smoldering debris when confronted with a bulldozer, 80 km south-east of Boonerdoo. Unfortunately, this species has only been encountered sporadically since. Monotypic.

Distribution. S Australia, current distribution includes areas of S Western Australia (SW corner of the Great Victoria Desert) and S South Australia (Nullarbor and Yellabinna regional reserves and Eyre Peninsula).

Descriptive notes. Head-body 8.5-11.4 cm, tail 10.6-13.3 cm; weight 25-55 g. The Sandhill Dunnart is one of the largest species of Sminthopsis ; only the Red-necked Dunnart (S. virginiae ) and the Julia Creek Dunnart (S. douglasi ) are larger. Dorsal fur of the Sandhill Dunnart is drab, brindled gray to buff; head is pale gray with black penciling extending from shoulders to a wedge between eyes. Sandhill Dunnarts have black eye rings. Cheeks and flanks are buff in color; underside of body and feet are white with hairy soles. Ears are large. Tail is pale gray above, dark gray below, tapering toward tip; there is a ventral crest of blackish-gray hairs on the last one-quarteroftail (distinguishing it from all other species of Sminthopsis ).

Habitat. Typically associated with sand dunes with an understory of spinifex hummock grass and overstory that vary widely in species composition. The Sandhill Dunnartinhabits groves of desert oak near Lake Amadeus predominantly mallee at Eyre Peninsula, and low, open Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) and Callitris (Cupressaceae) woodland in the Great Victoria Desert.

Food and Feeding. The diet of the Sandhill Dunnart consists of a wide variety of invertebrates (including ants, beetles, spiders, grasshoppers, wasps, and centipedes) and some small reptiles and mammals.

Breeding. In one study, a female Sandhill Dunnart with five small pouch young was caught in October, a lactating female without pouch young was caught in December, a female accompanied by four dependent juveniles was caught in early January, and independent young were trappable in April. Pouch of the Sandhill Dunnart has a wide flap of skin surrounding eight teats and young during early pouch life. In a recent captive study lasting three years, six females were paired for breeding on 16 occasions. Mating was confirmed eight times, resulting in six litters. On six occasions following mating, sperm was found in the urogenital sinus of the female the following day. On five of these occasions, sperm was detected for 1-2 days after mating, and once for a lengthy seven days. On one occasion, coagulated semen (likely a postcopulatory plug) was stuck to hair near urogenital opening of a female the day after mating was observed. Even so, most males did not mate, despite opportunities with viable females. After successfully raising six young in 2005, one female abandoned four of eight offspring the following year when they were 48-53 days old. An attempt was made to hand-rear these young but every one died. The mother successfully raised three of her remaining four young; the following year, she raised two of her four young successfully. Two captive-born females gave birth to litters of eight but lost all of them before weaning. Reproductive strategy of the Sandhill Dunnarts was characterized by polyestry in females, multiple season survival of males, sexual maturity at 8-11 months, and an extended, seasonal breeding season. Other species of Sminthopsis that are similarly found in the dry Eremaean biogeographical zone of central Australia (notably the Greater Long-tailed Dunnart, S. longicaudata , and the Ooldea Dunnart, S. ooldea ), exhibit the samelife history pattern. In one study, all females (13 breeding seasons over three years) entered estrus for the first time within the same 20 days in late June to mid-July, just after wintersolstice. The 16-19day interval between mating and birth observed in the Sandhill Dunnartis similar to the 17-19day interval for the Greater Long-tailed Dunnart and indicates a period of sperm storage in the female before ovulation takes place. As with male Ooldea Dunnarts, the Sandhill Dunnart reproduces at three years of age, with one male exhibiting spermatorrhoea in his fifth season, indicating ability to reproduce for longer than the demonstrated three years. Interestingly, one female Sandhill Dunnart in this study bred as a three-year-old, although with reduced fecundity; this appears to be longer than most other records in captive species of Sminthopsis .

Activity patterns. The Sandhill Dunnart is nocturnal; individuals begin foraging within a few minutes of sunset and may have 1-2 activity periods during the night. During the day, Sandhill Dunnarts shelter predominantly in nests made in large hemispherical hummock grasses. At Eyre Peninsula, they will leap up onto needle-sharp hummocks, scramble to the apex, and burrow down to the center, where a small spherical chamber is excavated in dead needles. This evidently offers them a safe haven from predators. Hummock grass also probably moderates the nest microclimate by reducing temperature fluctuations relative to the outside. In the Great Victoria Desert, Sandhill Dunnarts dig burrows under hummock grasses; these burrows were 30-100 cm long, terminating in a small, spherical chamber.

Movements, Home range and Social organization. Sandhill Dunnarts have large home ranges of ¢.7-5 ha. There is considerable overlap in home ranges of males and females. They move rapidly, typically covering at least 350 m during a night of foraging; movements of individuals up to 1960 m have been made in just two hours.

Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix I. Classified as Endangered on The [UCN Red List. Listed as endangered in Australia. Sandhill Dunnarts have an area of occupancy of less than 500 km? and they are known from just a few locations. Unfortunately, there is a continuing decline in their area of occupancy, extent, and quality of habitat; number of locations; and number of mature individuals. Overall population is estimated to be less than 2500 mature individuals, and there has been evidence of a recent decline of more than 20% over the last five years—a decline that is most likely continuing. The Sandhill Dunnart is considered rare and seldom collected. From August 1999 to May 2001, a survey for Sandhill Dunnarts was conducted in the southern Great Victoria Desert and Eyre Peninsula; only 29 specimens were collected at five sites. For more than a century (1894-1999), the Sandhill Dunnart was known from only 31 specimens. It has been lost from two of three known sites in the Yellabinna Wilderness Protection Area since 1984. There are only two known range isolates within South Australia; several surveys in intervening, apparently suitable habitat have failed to locate additional populations. Surveys into eastern Western Australia also have been unsuccessful in recording the species. There is predation pressure from introduced pests such as Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and domestic and feral cats. There are also habitat modifications caused by changed fire regimes and presence oflivestock. Further research is needed to quantify these threats, but cumulatively they are no doubt limiting to Sandhill Dunnarts. Fortunately, it is present in at least three protected areas: Queen Victoria Spring Nature Reserve and Nullarbor and Yellabinna regional reserves. There is a recovery plan for the Sandhill Dunnart and a captive breeding program at the Perth Zoo. Surveys are ongoing in the South Australia section of the Great Victoria Desert by the Department for Environment and Heritage, South Australia. Churchill (in 2001) listed several recovery actions need for sustainable management of the Sandhill Dunnart, including preventing further clearing ofsuitable habitat on Eyre Peninsula, conducting experimental burns in suitable habitat to promote growth of spinifex on Eyre Peninsula, conducting a detailed biological survey of Eyre Peninsula and pursuing further surveys of the Great Victoria Desert, encouraging use of deep pitfall traps in small mammal surveys in central Australia and the northern regions of the Great Victoria Desert, implementing monitoring programs for key populations, and studying the reproductive biology in captivity.

Bibliography. Aitken (1971a), Archer (1981a), Baverstock et al. (1984), Blacket, Adams et al. (2001), Blacket, Cooper et al. (2006), Churchill (2001), Hart & Kitchener (1986), Krajewski et al. (2012), Lambert, C. et al. (2011), Maxwell et al. (1996), Pearson & Churchill (2008), Pearson & Robinson (1990), Robinson et al. (2008).

Figures

56. Kangaroo Island Dunnart (Sminthopsis aitken), 57. Chestnut Dunnart (Sminthopsis archer), 58. Kakadu Dunnart (Sminthopsis bindi), 59. Butler's Dunnart (Sminthopsis butleri), 60. Fat-tailed Dunnart (Smunthopsis crassicaudata), 61. Little Long-tailed Dunnart (Sminthopsis dolichura), 62. Julia Creek Dunnart (Smunthopsis douglasi), 63. Gilbert's Dunnart (Sminthopsis gilbert), 64. White-tailed Dunnart (Sminthopsis granulipes), 65. Grey-bellied Dunnart (Sminthopsis griseoventer), 66. Greater Hairy-footed Dunnart (Smunthopsis hirtipes), 67. White-footed Dunnart (Sminthopsis leucopus), 68. Greater Long-tailed Dunnart (Sminthopsis longicaudata), 69. Stripe-faced Dunnart (Sminthopsis macroura), 70. Common Dunnart (Sminthopsis murina), 71. Ooldea Dunnart (Sminthopsis ooldea), 72. Sandhill Dunnart (Sminthopsis psammophila), 73. Red-cheeked Dunnart (Sminthopsis virginiae), 74. Lesser Hairy-footed Dunnart (Sminthopsis youngsoni)

Distribution. S Australia, current distribution includes areas of S Western Australia (SW corner of the Great Victoria Desert) and S South Australia (Nullarbor and Yellabinna regional reserves and Eyre Peninsula).