Pteropus conspicillatus, Gould, 1850

Don E. Wilson & Russell A. Mittermeier, 2019, Pteropodidae, Handbook of the Mammals of the World – Volume 9 Bats, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 16-162 : 145

153.

Spectacled Flying Fox

Pteropus conspicillatus

French: Roussette a lunettes / German: Brillenflughund / Spanish: Zorro volador de anteojos

Taxonomy. Pteropus conspicillatus Gould, 1850 ,

“Fitzroy Island,” Queensland, Australia.

Pteropus conspicillatus is in the griseus species group. Two subspecies recognized.

Subspecies and Distribution.

P.c. conspicillatus Gould, 1850 — coastal areas of New Guinea (including Schouten Is), D’Entrecasteux Is, Trobriand Is, Woodlark Is, Louisiade Archipelago, and NE Austral-1a (NE Queensland).

P. c. chrysauchen Peters, 1862 — N Moluccas (Morotai, Halmahera, Bacan, Obi and nearby Is), Gebe I, and Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo, Batanta, Salawati, and Misool).

Descriptive notes. Head-body 233-295 mm (tailless), ear 25-36 mm, hindfoot 51- 59 mm, forearm 150-189 mm; weight 0.5- 1 kg. Greatest lengths of skulls are 64— 92 mm and tibias 84-86 mm. Males and females differ in weight but have similar forearm lengths. Subspecies chrysauchen has weaker dentition and more pronounced pale eye rings than nominate form. Eyes are large, with dark brown irises. Rings around eyes are buffy to golden, extending over rostrum with some blackish hairs mixed in. Ears are long, with narrowing to slightly rounded tips. Body, head, chin, throat, and middle of fore neck are dark seal-brown to black, with sprinkles of yellowish to silvery white hair. Fur is short and adpressed, with fur down to knees. Mantle is ocherous buffy to golden to orange, or divided in an orange region near head and creamy white posterior region, extending around to sides of neck and sides of fore neck to a darker tinge. Side of neck is occasionally mixed with blackish hairs. Skull is typical pteropine, with base of postorbital processes very strong and raised above medial frontal region. Coronoid is moderate and somewhat sloping. Dentition is rather weak, particularly in cheekteeth. C' and C, are long, with vertical groove on outer face. C! is nearly straight and has moderate cingulum forming well-defined rim, with medial longitudinalridge on lingual face of crown. C, has narrow cingulum and is mildly recurved.

Habitat. Closed forests, gallery forests, Eucalyptus open forests, Melaleuca swamps, coastal swamps, mangroves, tall Acacia trees, urban parks, and orchards from sea level up to elevations of ¢. 200 m. In New Guinea, the Spectacled Flying Fox roosts in secondary forests, coconut ( Cocos nucifera, Arecaceae ) plantations, Casuarina spp. (Casuarinaceae) , and Araucaria cunninghamii ( Araucariaceae ). In wet seasons in Australia, it forages in coastal and upland rainforests. During cooler months,it prefers to forage on the coast.

Food and Feeding. The Spectacled Flying Fox primarily eats fruits, occasionally flowers, and rarely foliage. Fruits from at least 14 genera and twelve families, including figs ( Ficus , Moraceae ), are eaten. Large fruits are sometimes taken to anothersite for consumption, dispersing seeds over long distances (estimated maximal dispersal ¢. 80 km). Individuals might defend c. 3 m around them on a feeding tree and push competing individuals out. When native fruit is scarce, they feed on fruit crops. Flowers are eaten primarily from Myrtaceae ( Eucalyptus , Syncarpia , and Syzygium ) and Proteaceae (Grevillea) and two other native genera ( Neolitsea , Lauraceae and Castanospermum , Fabaceae ). Foliage of Albizia (Fabaceae) is eaten. The Spectacled Flying Fox was observed eating scarab beetles that infested a Glochidion (Phyllanthaceae) tree and spitting out the exoskeletons. Individuals skim over surfaces of freshwater and seawater to drink.

Breeding. The Spectacled Flying Fox breeds seasonally and reproduces once a year. Females give birth to one young in October-Decemberin large maternity colonies. Mating occurs primarily in March-April. Pregnancy lasts ¢.6 months; lactation lasts 3-4 months. Females reach sexual maturity by two years of age, with lower birth rate (39%) than that of older females (80%). The Spectacled Flying Fox hybridizes with the Black Flying Fox ( P. alecto ) and the Gray-headed Flying Fox ( P. poliocephalus ).

Activity patterns. The Spectacled Flying Fox is nocturnal. Individuals leave roosts around dusk to forage and return around dawn. Colonies leave roosts as a loose stream and congregate at foraging sites, with earlier arrivals establishing feeding territories and driving off new arrivals. During the day, they rest at roostsites and exhibit typical pteropodine activity, such as wing flapping and occasional conspecific territorial interactions.

Movements, Home range and Social organization. The Spectacled Flying Fox is gregarious and roosts in colonies of 12,000 -20,000 individuals. Longest foraging distance is 43- 4 km (mean 11- 8 km). In the Atherton Tableland of Australia, seasonal movements occur; in coastal areas with less fluctuation of food resources, roosts tend to be occupied year-round. The Spectacled Flying Fox occasionally roosts with other flying fox species, but there is still some degree of physical segregation among species in roost trees.

Status and Conservation. CITES Appendix II. Classified as Least Concern on The IUCNRed List. The Spectacled Flying Fox has a wide distribution and large population that is not declining at a rate to qualify for a threatened category. In Indonesia,it is threatened by habitat loss from logging and mining and hunting. In New Guinea,it is threatened by logging and hunting. In Australia, it is threatened by habitat conversion to agriculture, pastureland, and urban area. Additional threats include electrocution on powerlines, entanglement on barbed wire or powerlines, persecution by humans, disturbance of maternity colonies, and infestation with paralysis ticks. Paralysis ticks cause mortality, especially of young, and are likely the consequence of habitat modifications pushing Spectacled Flying Foxes to forage in lowerforest strata. They face increased persecution due to public concerns about diseases, smell, and noise associated with large colonies, particularly when they move into new areas. Subsidies for installing netting to protect crops in New South Wales, Australia, and reduction of number oflicenses to shoot flying foxes have been initiated to reduce potential for mortality. Extreme heat events have caused mass mortalities in Australia.

Bibliography. Almeida et al. (2014), Andersen (1912b), Bonaccorso (1998), Churchill (2008), Corbet & Hill (1992), Flannery (1995a), Fox (2006), Fox et al. (2008), Helgen, Salas & Bonaccorso (2008), Parsons, J.G. et al. (2010), Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management (2010), Ratcliffe (1932), Richards (1990a, 1990b), Simmons (2005), Westcott et al. (2001).

Figures

144. Ornate Flying Fox (Pleropus ornatus), 145. Seram Flying Fox (Pteropus ocularis), 146. Great Flying Fox (Pteropus neohibernicus), 147. Wallacean Gray Flying Fox (Pleropus griseus), 148. Admiralty Flying Fox (Pteropus admiralitatum), 149. Philippine Gray Flying Fox (Pteropus speciosus), 150. Island Flying Fox (Pleropus hypomelanus), 151. Black-eared Flying Fox (Pteropus melanotus), 152. Black Flying Fox (Pleropus alecto), 153. Spectacled Flying Fox (Pteropus conspicillatus), 154. Geelvink Bay Flying Fox (Pteropus pohlei), 155. Marianas Flying Fox (Pteropus mariannus), 156. Palau Flying Fox (Pteropus pelewensis), 157. Pacific Flying Fox (Pteropus tonganus), 158. Kosrae Flying Fox (Pteropus ualanus), 159. Nicobar Flying Fox (Pteropus faunulus), 160. Ontong Java Flying Fox (Pteropus howensis)

Subspecies and Distribution. P.c. conspicillatus Gould, 1850 — coastal areas of New Guinea (including Schouten Is), D’Entrecasteux Is, Trobriand Is, Woodlark Is, Louisiade Archipelago, and NE Austral-1a (NE Queensland). P. c. chrysauchen Peters, 1862 — N Moluccas (Morotai, Halmahera, Bacan, Obi and nearby Is), Gebe I, and Raja Ampat Is (Waigeo, Batanta, Salawati, and Misool).