Toxoplasma gondii

Borkens, Yannick, 2021, Toxoplasma gondii in Australian macropods (Macropodidae) and its implication to meat consumption, International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 16, pp. 153-162 : 154

1.4. T. gondii as a food-borne pathogen

All warm-blooded animals can function as an intermediate hosts for T. gondii , including wild and domestic birds, smaller animals such as rodents as well as Australian monotremes and marsupials, livestock species, larger predators such as dogs and bears and marine mammals such as dolphins and whales ( Gamble, 1997; Munday et al., 1998; Jensen et al., 2010; Tryland et al., 2013; Bezerra et al., 2015; Cano-Terriza et al., 2016; Dubey et al., 2016; Hillman et al., 2016; Reiterova´et al., 2016; San Miguel et al., 2016; Verma et al., 2016; Shokri et al., 2017; Iqbal et al., 2018; Rasambainarivo et al., 2018; Cerqueira-C´ezar et al., 2019). For this reason, T. gondii is one of the most relevant food-borne pathogens. High prevalence of infection with T. gondii has been found in poultry, pigs, sheep and goats, among others ( Gamble, 1997; Shokri et al., 2017; Ducournau et al., 2020; Mofokeng et al., 2020). Cattle, on the other hand, show a certain resistance ( Blaga et al., 2019; Mofokeng et al., 2020). However, the seroprevalence depends heavily on different husbandry conditions. These factors include indoor or outdoor rearing, herd size, farming with different species, feeding with seasonal foods without chemical processing, and whether cats are present on farms ( Bawm et al., 2016; Djokic et al., 2016).

In addition to livestock animals, high prevalence were also found in game species. These include wild boars (Sus scrofa) ( Matsumoto et al., 2011; Jeong et al., 2014; Jokelainen et al., 2015; Cleveland et al., 2017; Roqueplo et al., 2017; Laforet et al., 2019; Machado et al., 2019; Bier et al., 2020; Kornacka et al., 2020; Sgroi et al., 2020) and various deer species ( Cervus spp. , Odocoileus spp. , Alces alces ) ( Matsumoto et al., 2011; Olamendi-Portugal et al., 2012; Dubey et al., 2014; Tavernier et al., 2015; Rocchigiani et al., 2016; Remes et al., 2018; Koloren ¨et al., 2019; Bier et al., 2020). T. gondii has been found in these species on all continents. Outbreaks of toxoplasmosis have been associated with the consumption of undercooked game meat in Australia (Kangaroo) as well as in the United States and in Canada (Deer) ( Robson et al., 1995; Gaulin et al., 2020; Schumacher et al., 2020; Westling, 2020). For this reason, hunters, people, who engage in hunting trips as well as livestock and farm workers, are people at risk (Munoz-Zanzi ˜et al., 2013; Machado et al., 2019; Stelzer et al., 2019; Westling, 2020). Furthermore, T. gondii can also cause economic damage. For example, due to the reduced health of farm animals or the lack of workers who stay away from work because of toxoplasmosis ( Stelzer et al., 2019).